fundamental tenets of cost accounting: different costs are meaningful and useful for different purposes.
Most cost accounting systems include in factory overhead all costs that are not traceable to a specific unit or lot of output. In such systems, the manufacturing costs directly traceable to a batch, a customer order, an entire production facility, a new product or product variation, or a strategic goal are combined in a single overhead classification, because none of these costs is viewed as being directly traceable to the product.
For any careful analysis of what causes costs or how to manage costs better, disaggregation of overhead into different categories is an important but often difficult step. For example, without careful disaggregation, the difference in the cost of running a large number of small batches of many different products, rather than a few large batches of a few products, is not discernible. A manufacturer may be so inefficient in managing some part of overhead costs that a competitive disadvantage can result, but the mismanaged cost item may not be reported to any responsible manager. Instead, the mismanaged cost may be just one of many components of a large and growing total of overhead costs, representing some of the indirect labor, some of the indirect materails, some energy costs, etc. In the future Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM), employing database management technology on a company-wide scale, may remedy this shortcoming of today's information systems.
Commercial expense. Commercial expenses fall into two broad classifications: marketing expenses and administrative expenses (also called general and administrative expenses). Marketing expenses begin at the point at which the factory costs end. That is, when manufacturing has been completed and the product is in salable condition. They include the expenses of promotion, selling, and delivery. Administrative expenses include expenses incurred in directing and controlling the organization. Not all such expenses are allocated as administrative expenses. The salary of a vice-president in charge of manufacturing can be treated as a manufacturing cost, and the salary of a vice- president in charge of marketing can be treated as a marketing expense.
Costs in Relation to the Volume of Production
Some costs vary in proportion to changes in the volume of production or output, while others remain relatively constant in amount. The tendency of costs to vary with output must be considered by management if it desires to plan and control costs successfully.
Variable Costs. The total amounts of variable costs change in proportion to changes in activity within a relevant range. Stated differently. variable costs show a relatively constant amount per unit as activity changes within a relevant range. They usually are assignable to operating departments with reasonable ease and accuracy and are controllable by the supervisor of a specific operating level. Variable costs generally include direct materials and direct labor. The following list identifies overhead costs usually classified as variable costs.
Supplies
Fuel
Small tools
Spoilage, salvage, and reclamation expenses
Receiving costs
Royalties