2.3. Emotional domain
The issue of leadership vision introduced above in Table 1 provides a good example of how conceptual and emotional domains may be inextricably linked in any consideration of leadership and its development. We define vision as a future- oriented articulation or image of an organization's purpose and direction that inspires enthusiasm and is ambitious, but within a latitude of acceptance on the part of followers (Berson, Shamir, Avolio, & Popper, 2001; Conger & Kanungo, 1998; House, 1977; Nanus, 1992). Further, as compared to strategic goals, visions tend to be less concrete, encompass a broader time span, and contain a higher content of idealistic values, beliefs, and purpose, as opposed to business-oriented content.
In an attempt to further delineate vision, Boal and Hooijberg (2001) separated the affective and cognitive domains. As argued in more detail below, the affective domain makes a direct, emotional appeal to the personal values and beliefs of followers and, as such, is in line with most previous considerations of the nature of leadership vision (e.g., Nanus, 1992; Sashkin, 1988). However, as noted by Boal and Hooijberg (2001), the cognitive domain is also important because it influences the information that is sought out and used in vision formation. Although Bass (1985) originally conceived intellectual stimulation to be separate from more affective domains of visionary and charismatic leadership, subsequent empirical work has found them to be highly intercorrelated, thus suggesting that affective and cognitive domains of vision may be highly bound together (Judge & Piccolo, 2004; Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996).
The emotional domain of leadership can be largely understood by considering how leadership visions become shared with followers. We define a vision as shared when there is commitment to carrying it out by the preponderance of followers to whom the vision pertains. To a large extent, there is an assumption in the literature that a vision will become shared because of a combination of visionary behaviors on the part of leaders and favorable attributions toward the leader on the part of followers (Conger & Kanungo, 1998; Shamir, 1991). For example, if the leader presents a vision that seems insightful and exciting, followers will have confidence in the leader and naturally coalesce around his or her vision in unison (i.e., share the vision). This, however, seems overly simplistic. We argue, on the other hand, that it is quite possible for a leader to articulate a vision that does not become widely shared among followers.
According to Senge (1990b), a leader's vision becomes shared when it builds upon a desire on the part of followers
to pursue a common important undertaking, and when it connects emotionally to their personal values and visions. Shamir, House, and Arthur (1993) put forth a theory of charismatic leadership that was based on the self-concepts of followers and emotional attachment to the vision of a leader. The essence of their work was that such leaders communicate or symbolize messages that contain many references to values and moral justifications. They are able to have motivational effects on followers by presenting goals or a vision in terms of the values that they represent, thus generating an emotional response. Subsequently, the intrinsic valence of effort and goals, and the follower's self- concept, become linked to values, resulting in value internalization on the part of the follower (Lord & Brown, 2001,
2004).
Effective leaders deal not only with the emotional needs and responses of others; they also deal with their own emotions in order to achieve effectiveness. That is, they are able to maintain their emotional intelligence. There is some evidence that a leader's emotional abilities and understandings (i.e., emotional intelligence) can play a key role in transformational leadership and the attribution of charismatic qualities to a leader (Megerian & Sosik, 1996; Shamir,
1991). But how exactly does emotional intelligence come into play for such leaders? We wish to emphasize two issues. First, the emotionally intelligent leader is able to stimulate emotional contagion by maintaining balance and keeping themselves positive and motivated, thereby inspiring others around him or herself (Hatfield, Cacioppo, & Rapson,
1994). Emotional contagion can, in turn, foster collective efficacy and unity (Van Knippenberg & Hogg, 2003).
Second, effective leaders are able to manage negative emotions, such as anxiety and fear, thereby showing courage. They do so through accepting responsibility, occasional nonconformity, stating potentially unpopular beliefs, and acting as moral leaders (Daft, 2005).
2.4. Spiritual domain
As noted previously, the last domain of our model is the one that is least developed in leadership taxonomies and theory. Moreover, to some degree, it may be the most controversial. At its core, this domain involves an understanding of how the needs of followers to connect to higher-order, spiritual purposes are relevant to effective leadership in work settings. As such, moral leadership is closely connected to the spiritual domain. We define moral leadership as distinguishing right from wrong in one's leadership role, and then taking steps to ensure justice, honesty, and helping followers to connect to a higher-order, spiritual purpose.
Transformational leadership theory may be particularly relevant to the spiritual domain. Burns (1978) originally advanced the argument that transformational leadership is tantamount to moral leadership, and that both followers and leaders progress to the highest levels of moral development (Kohlberg, 1976) as a result of such leadership. That is, transformational leaders are able to progress to the post-conventional stage of development, in which they act in an independent and ethical manner, regardless of the expectations of other individuals or the norms of society. Subsequently, other theorists have also considered how transformational leaders develop deeply-held values and standards, such as those pertaining to integrity, justice, and maintaining the societal good (Bass and Steidlmeier; Kuhnert, 1994; Kuhnert & Lewis,1987). Turner, Barling, Epitropaki, Butcher, and Milner (2002) present recent evidence of an empirical relationship between transformational leadership and higher stages of moral development. Along similar lines, Kanungo (2001) and Mendonca (2001) argued that charismatic leadership, a key element of transformational leadership, is often rooted in strong ethical values. The essence of this argument is that such leaders
may be guided by morally altruistic principles that “reflect a helping concern for others even at considerable personal
sacrifice or inconvenience” (Mendonca, 2001; 268).
We should caution that as noted by previous authors (e.g., Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999; Howell & Avolio, 1992; Waldman & Yammarino, 1999), not all leaders with charismatic appeal will have strong moral values, and indeed some
may have motives leaning more toward personal power and self-aggrandizement. Thus, it may be necessary to delineate two types: (1) socialized charismatic leadership, and (2) personalized charismatic leadership. The socialized charismatic will have a strong commitment to socially-based goals that benefit the larger entity of which s/he is a part, or even society in general, since he or she has an authentic sense of moral or ethical values (Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans, & May, 2004; House & Howell, 1992). In turn, the socialized charismatic is likely to encourage followers to also engage in moral pursuits as a means of meeting their own spiritual needs, as opposed to proselytizing them.
In contrast, the personalized charismatic uses power for personal gain, is exploitative or manipulative of others, and narcissistic (Maccoby, 2004). The personalized charismatic might have some interest in pursuing socially-based goals (i.e., corporate social responsibility) simply as a means of building a positive image for the leader, the firm, or both (Gardner & Avolio, 1998; Kets de Vries, 1993). However, his or her interest in, and commitment to, such goals is likely to be marginal and purely calculative, rather than authentic. Moreover, the personalized charismatic is more likely to attempt to proselytize followers, as opposed to encouraging followers to simply live out their own spiritual beliefs in the workplace.
2.5. Putting it all together
The ACES classification of domains paints a very involved picture of leadership effectiveness. In addition to the often considered analytical domain, we have presented three other domains that are still emerging in the leadership literature: conceptual, emotional, and spiritual. It is clear that while it is possible to consider these domains individually, they are inextricably linked. Thus, we posit that development efforts will need to take into account the various connections between the domains. For example, the maximum development of visionary leadership capabilities will be associated with efforts designed to link conceptual/creative thinking, emotional appeal, and morality/spirituality. We now turn our attention to a leadership development classification scheme that we propose to be relevant to the ACES model.