Nanotubes of carbon and other materials
are arguably the most fascinating
materials playing an important
role in nanotechnology today.
Their unique mechanical, electronic,
and other properties are expected to result
in revolutionary new materials and
devices. However, these nanomaterials,
produced mostly by synthetic bottomup
methods, are discontinuous objects,
and this leads to difficulties with their
alignment, assembly, and processing
into applications. Partly because of
this, and despite considerable effort, a
viable carbon nanotube–reinforced supernanocomposite
is yet to be demonstrated.
Advanced continuous fibers
produced a revolution in the field of
structural materials and composites in
the last few decades as a result of their
high strength, stiffness, and continuity,
which, in turn, meant processing and
alignment that were economically feasible.
Fiber mechanical properties are
known to substantially improve with a
decrease in the fiber diameter. Hence,
there is a considerable interest in the
development of advanced continuous
fibers with nanoscale diameters. However,
conventional mechanical fiber
spinning techniques cannot produce fibers
with diameters smaller than about
2 μm robustly. Most commercial fibers
are several times that diameter, owing
to the trade-offs between the technological
and economic factors.
Electrospinning technology enables
production of continuous polymer
nanofibers from polymer solutions or
melts in high electric fields. When the
electric force on induced charges on
the polymer liquid overcomes surface
tension, a thin polymer jet is ejected.
The charged jet is elongated and accelerated
by the electric field, undergoes
a variety of instabilities, dries, and is
deposited on a substrate as a random
nanofiber mat. The first patent on the
process was awarded in 1934; however,
outside of the filter industry,
there was little interest in the electrospinning
or electrospun nanofibers, until
the mid-1990s (1). Since that time,
the process attracted rapidly growing
interest triggered by potential applications
of nanofibers in the nanotechnology.
The publication rate has nearly
doubled annually, reaching about 200
articles in 2003. Over a hundred synthetic
and natural polymers were electrospun
into fibers with diameters
ranging from a few nanometers to micrometers
(see the figure, panel A).
The main advantage of this topdown
nanomanufacturing process is
its relatively low cost compared to that
of most bottom-up methods. The resulting
nanofiber samples are often
uniform and do not require expensive
purification (panels B and C). Unlike
submicrometer-diameter whiskers, inorganic
nanorods, carbon nanotubes,
and nanowires, the electrospun nanofibers
are continuous. As a result, this
process has unique potential for costeffective
electromechanical control of
fiber placement and integrated manufacturing
of two- and three-dimensional
nanofiber assemblies. In addition,
the nanofiber continuity may
alleviate, at least in part, concerns
about the properties of small particles
(2). Nanofibers are expected to possess
high axial strength combined with
extreme flexibility. The nanofiber assemblies
may feature very high open
porosity coupled with remarkable specific
surface area. Yet, these assemblies
would possess excellent structural mechanical
properties. Uses of nanofibers
in composites, protective clothing, catalysis,
electronics, biomedicine (including
tissue engineering, implants,
membranes, and drug delivery), filtration,
agriculture, and other areas are
presently being developed. Clearly,
there is a growing interest in the process,
but the results reported to date
are centered mostly on the empirical
production and the proposed uses of
polymer nanofibers. At the same time,
thorough understanding of the mechanisms
of jet formation and motion is
needed for the development of robust
methods of process control. Analysis of
the electrospinning process is complicated
by electromechanical coupling,
nonlinear rheology, and unusual jet instabilities.
Some progress was recently
made on modeling of jet initiation (3,
4). Steady-state spinning was modeled
in the nonlinear rheologic regime important
for polymer jets (5, 6). Experimental
observations and modeling of
bending (or whipping) instability (7,
8) produced a major breakthrough in
process analysis. It substantially improved
our understanding of the jet
motion and removed an early controversy
in the electrospinning studies
over the interpretation of long–exposure
time images of the instability
process zone (1, 7, 8). It has been suggested
(7, 8) that bending instabilities
constitute a major mechanism responsible
for the rapid jet thinning in this
process. These instabilities are also responsible
for the resulting random
nanofiber orientation.
More recently, three major breakthroughs
were made that are expected
to have lasting impact on the
quality and scope of the applications.
First, several methods of nanofiber
alignment were developed that can be
roughly classified into methods “directing”
(9–12) or suppressing (13, 14)
jet bending instabilities. The methods
need to be further improved because
most produce only partial alignment,
but the results show promise. Align-
Nanotubes of carbon and other materialsare arguably the most fascinatingmaterials playing an importantrole in nanotechnology today.Their unique mechanical, electronic,and other properties are expected to resultin revolutionary new materials anddevices. However, these nanomaterials,produced mostly by synthetic bottomupmethods, are discontinuous objects,and this leads to difficulties with theiralignment, assembly, and processinginto applications. Partly because ofthis, and despite considerable effort, aviable carbon nanotube–reinforced supernanocompositeis yet to be demonstrated.Advanced continuous fibersproduced a revolution in the field ofstructural materials and composites inthe last few decades as a result of theirhigh strength, stiffness, and continuity,which, in turn, meant processing andalignment that were economically feasible.Fiber mechanical properties areknown to substantially improve with adecrease in the fiber diameter. Hence,there is a considerable interest in thedevelopment of advanced continuousfibers with nanoscale diameters. However,conventional mechanical fiberspinning techniques cannot produce fiberswith diameters smaller than about2 μm robustly. Most commercial fibersare several times that diameter, owingto the trade-offs between the technologicaland economic factors.Electrospinning technology enablesproduction of continuous polymernanofibers from polymer solutions orละลายในไฟฟ้าสูง เมื่อการกำลังไฟฟ้าค่าธรรมเนียมอาจบนของเหลวของพอลิเมอร์ overcomes ผิวความตึงเครียด เจ็ทบางพอลิเมอร์ได้พุ่งออกมาการคิดค่าธรรมเนียมเจ็ทเป็นอีลองเกต และเร่งโดยสนามไฟฟ้า ทนี้หลากหลาย instabilities แห้ง และเป็นฝากบนพื้นผิวเป็นแบบสุ่มnanofiber พรม สิทธิบัตรแรกในการกระบวนการได้รับรางวัลใน 1934 อย่างไรก็ตามภายนอกของตัวกรองสนใจเล็กน้อยในเส้นใยนาโนมีelectrospun nanofibers หรือจนกว่าในกลางทศวรรษที่ 1990 (1) ตั้งแต่เวลากระบวนการดึงดูดการเติบโตอย่างรวดเร็วสนใจที่ทริกเกอร์ โดยโปรแกรมประยุกต์อาจเกิดขึ้นของ nanofibers นาโนเทคโนโลยีอัตราประกาศมีเกือบสองเท่าทุกปี ถึงประมาณ 200บทความใน 2003 กว่าร้อยสังเคราะห์และโพลิเมอร์ธรรมชาติ electrospunเป็นเส้นใยมีสมมาตรตั้งแต่กี่ nanometers คัลไมโครมิเตอร์แบบ(ดูตัวเลข แผง A)ประโยชน์หลักของแค่นี้กระบวนการ nanomanufacturingเปรียบเทียบกับค่อนข้างประหยัดวิธีการสายล่างสุด การส่งผลตัวอย่าง nanofiber มักยูนิฟอร์ม และไม่ต้องมีราคาแพงทำให้บริสุทธิ์ (แผง B และ C) ซึ่งแตกต่างจากเส้นผ่าศูนย์กลาง submicrometer หนวด อนินทรีย์nanorods คาร์บอน nanotubesและ nanowires, electrospun nanofibersได้อย่างต่อเนื่อง ดังนั้น นี้กระบวนการที่มีศักยภาพเฉพาะสำหรับ costeffectiveควบคุมไฟฟ้าวางใยและการผลิตรวมของสอง - และ three - dimensionalnanofiber assemblies. In addition,the nanofiber continuity mayalleviate, at least in part, concernsabout the properties of small particles(2). Nanofibers are expected to possesshigh axial strength combined withextreme flexibility. The nanofiber assembliesmay feature very high openporosity coupled with remarkable specificsurface area. Yet, these assemblieswould possess excellent structural mechanicalproperties. Uses of nanofibersin composites, protective clothing, catalysis,electronics, biomedicine (includingtissue engineering, implants,membranes, and drug delivery), filtration,agriculture, and other areas arepresently being developed. Clearly,there is a growing interest in the process,but the results reported to dateare centered mostly on the empiricalproduction and the proposed uses ofpolymer nanofibers. At the same time,thorough understanding of the mechanismsof jet formation and motion isneeded for the development of robustmethods of process control. Analysis ofthe electrospinning process is complicatedby electromechanical coupling,nonlinear rheology, and unusual jet instabilities.Some progress was recentlymade on modeling of jet initiation (3,4). Steady-state spinning was modeledin the nonlinear rheologic regime importantfor polymer jets (5, 6). Experimentalobservations and modeling ofbending (or whipping) instability (7,8) produced a major breakthrough inprocess analysis. It substantially improvedour understanding of the jetmotion and removed an early controversyin the electrospinning studiesover the interpretation of long–exposuretime images of the instabilityprocess zone (1, 7, 8). It has been suggested(7, 8) that bending instabilitiesconstitute a major mechanism responsiblefor the rapid jet thinning in thisprocess. These instabilities are also responsiblefor the resulting randomnanofiber orientation.More recently, three major breakthroughswere made that are expectedto have lasting impact on thequality and scope of the applications.First, several methods of nanofiberalignment were developed that can beroughly classified into methods “directing”(9–12) or suppressing (13, 14)jet bending instabilities. The methodsneed to be further improved becausemost produce only partial alignment,but the results show promise. Align-
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