Despite these limitations, to our knowledge the
current study represents the first prospective investigation regarding incense use and cancer risk, and the
results indicate that incense use is associated with
an increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma in the
respiratory tract, especially in the upper part. This
association is consistent with a large number of studies identifying carcinogens in incense smoke, and
given the widespread and sometimes involuntary exposure to smoke from burning incense, these findings carry significant public health implications. In
addition to initiatives to reduce incense smoke exposure, future studies should be undertaken to identify
the least harmful types of incense.