51 Teacher perceptions of the way they are viewed by the public, including social status and level of appreciation for what teachers do, seem to be connected to teachers’ future teaching plans (Inman & Marlow, 2004). The purpose of Inman and Marlow’s study was to examine beginning teacher attitudes and beliefs to uncover the pleasant and positive aspects of teaching that may lead to teacher retention. Five hundred beginning teachers participated in the research by completing a survey designed to measure career stability. One of the items in the sLu"vey was designed to compare beginning teachers’ perceptions of the professional prestige they experienced from the community with their expectations regarding community perceptions of teachers prior to entering teaching. Over 40% of the respondents indicated that teaching carries a lower level of prestige than they expected prior to entering the profession. Inman and Marlow surmised that, as a result of the way teachers are presented in the media, combined with low levels of support from parents and community members, teachers seem to be likely to become disillusioned very early in their careers. In another study aimed at determining the factors contributing to teachers’ decisions to stay in or leave the profession, Tye and O’Brien (2002) sent questionnaires to 551 graduates of a teacher credentialing program at Chapman University in Orange, California. One hundred fourteen people completed the questionnaire. The results were as follows: (a) among those who already left teaching, low status of the profession ranked sixth out of seven reasons; and (b) among those who had not yet left, but would consider leaving the profession, low status of the profession ranked fourth out of seven reasons. In the open-ended response section, responses included, “This is an impossible job to get
52 done.” “We are not treated respectfully by anyone.” “I wouldn’t recommend this profession to anybody” (p. 7). Hall and Langton (2006) conducted a study that included l,l45 participants (634 people who were 12-25 years of age, 41 l adults 26 years and older, and l62 employers) who participated in telephone interviews regarding perceptions of the image of teaching, and the advantages/disadvantages of the teaching profession. The interviews lasted approximately 26 minutes each. Regarding the issue of status, teachers ranked fourth on the list, with doctors, lawyers, and politicians ranking higher. On a scale of l-10, with l0 signifying extremely high status, teachers received an average ranking of 6.8. This translates to low status because those who participated in the study viewed teachers as having few opportunities to obtain of power, money, and fame, as compared to other professions, which are perceived to have greater opportunities (e.g., doctors, lawyers, politicians). Of those who gave responses to the open-ended question regarding what comes to mind when thinking about a teaching career, approximately 50% of the respondents expressed negative comments, with 35% giving positive comments. The negative responses included issues such as pay, lack of authority and student behavior problems, lack of support or appreciation, stress, danger, and lack of status. Those who gave positive comments indicated job security, holidays, and hours of work. Based on the results from this study, when compared to other occupations, teachers seemed to have little power and status. Using a sample of 50,000 teachers with data generated from their participation in the U.S. Department of Education’s SASS, and the TFS, Provasnik and Dorfman (2005)
53 reported findings based on their analysis of teacher attrition data in 1999-2000. The most commonly identified reasons for leaving were: (a) decisions to retire (20%), (b) family issues (16%), (c) pregnancy and other family issues (14%), (d) wanting a higher salary (14%), and (e) the desire to move towards another career (13%). Some extemal factors that affect career decisions seem unrelated to bumout. Two common extemal factors affecting teacher turnover are when teachers change positions (move from one position to another, change schools, or move to another district) or retire from the profession. Teacher retirement is one form of tumover that is unavoidable (Boe, Bobbitt, & Cook, 1997). McLeskey et al. (2004) also cited personal reasons unrelated to burnout—teachers leave the field for reasons not related to their jobs, such as health issues, family issues, and relocating to another geographic location. Summary. This section of the review of the literature revealed that, since the 1970s, the main issues causing teacher burnout can be categorized within three sets of factors: individual/demographic factors, employment factors, and external factors. In individual/demographic factors, there has been some inconsistency in the findings pertaining to the effects of gender on burnout. Marital status has been shown, with consistency to affect job satisfaction and is related to bumout patterns. Across the literature, it has been shown that younger teachers and those with less experience are more prone to experience feelings of dissatisfaction and attrition. The findings have been mixed among studies that investigated differences in bumout patterns among elementary and secondary teachers. Few studies have examined the effects of teacher personality and teacher-student interactions on burnout; however, the results of studies that examined
54 teacher personality and the effect of teacher-student interaction on job satisfaction found that teachers with higher self-concept experienced greater success with their students; in tum, teachers with more positive interactions with their students seem to experience greater job satisfaction. In situational/school factors, issues such as student behavior issues, workload (including paperwork and class size), insufficient resources, lack of opportunity to interact with colleagues, administrative support, school climate, and salary were found to be correlated with teacher bumout. While researched less extensively, increased levels of parent involvement, and building leadership capacity and providing teachers with opportunities to participate in decision-making seem to be related to job satisfaction. Recently, extemal factors, such as promotional opportunities, have gamered attention among researchers. Factors such as community recognition, public perception, and community support have not been researched to a large extent; however, some studies have shown a correlation between these factors and intent to remain in the profession Other extemal factors, such as retirement or changing positions, can explain teacher tumover; however, these factors should not be considered as expressions of burnout. Teacher commitment seems to be adversely affected by role conflict, absence of sufficient administrative support, negative teacher-teacher relationships, negative teacher- student relationships, and negative teacher-parent relationships. Working in urban areas with minority, underachieving students affects commitment. Conversely, commitment can be increased through opportunities to participate in decision-making and by fostering
55 positive relations with students, parents, and other teachers. Increased salary and mentoring opportunities also have an effect on teacher perceptions of commitment. Applying these findings back to the theoretical models, someindividual/demographic factors (e. g., marital status and age) fit within Maslach et al.’s (2001) model, which also included individual/demographic factors, while findings in the situational/school factors section (e. g., teacher-to-teacher and teacher-to-student interactions, paperwork, student discipline issues, resources, colleague support, school climate, and salary) correlate with a combination of Maslach et al.’s model that contains situational factors, and Ouyang and Paprock’s (2006) model that contains school factors. When combined, these models encompass most of the major issues found in the literature; however, in isolation, both models have their shortcomings. Community factors are missing from Maslach et al.’s model, and demographic factors are missing from Ouyang and Paprock’s model. Factors Related to Special Education Teacher Burnout This section will address the shortages in the field of special education, as well as the theoretical, historical, and empirical findings related to personal/demographic factors, employment factors, and external factors, and how those variables relate to special education teacher commitment. Shortage of special education teachers. The scarcity of highly qualified special education teachers is currently a nationwide problem (Billingsley, 2004; Menlove, Garnes, & Salzberg, 2004; Miller et al., 1998; Thornton, Peltier, & Medina, 2007). Ninety-eight percent of school districts nationwide have shortages, and the problem is
แนวครู 51 ของดูประชาชน รวมถึงสถานะทางสังคมและระดับราคาที่เพิ่มขึ้นสำหรับครูผู้สอนว่าวิธีทำ ดูเหมือนจะเชื่อมโยงกับแผนการสอนในอนาคตครู (ใต้และลิตี้มาร์โลว์ 2004) วัตถุประสงค์ของการศึกษาของลิตี้มาร์โลว์และใต้คือการ ตรวจสอบเริ่มต้นครูทัศนคติและความเชื่อการค้นพบด้านการสอนที่อาจนำไปสู่การรักษาครูดี และบวก ห้าร้อยเริ่มต้นครูที่เข้าร่วมในการวิจัย โดยดำเนินการสำรวจออกแบบเพื่อวัดความมั่นคงของอาชีพ หนึ่งใน sLu "บริการดุจญาติถูกออกแบบมาเพื่อเปรียบเทียบภาพลักษณ์ครูต้นของเพรสทีจมืออาชีพผู้มีประสบการณ์จากชุมชนที่มีความคาดหวังของพวกเขาเกี่ยวกับชุมชนการรับรู้ของครูผู้สอนก่อนเข้าสอน กว่า 40% ของผู้ตอบที่ระบุว่า สอนดำเนินการระดับต่ำของเพรสทีจกว่าพวกเขาคาดว่าก่อนที่จะป้อนการอาชีพ ใต้และลิตี้มาร์โลว์ surmised ว่า จากวิธีการครูจะนำเสนอในสื่อ รวมกับระดับต่ำสุดของการสนับสนุนจากผู้ปกครองและสมาชิกชุมชน ครูดูเหมือนจะมีแนวโน้มเป็น disillusioned แรกสุดในอาชีพของตน ในการศึกษาอื่นกำหนดปัจจัยที่เอื้อต่อการตัดสินใจครูให้พัก หรือออกจากอาชีพ ท้ายและโอไบรอัน (2002) ส่งแบบสอบถามการถ่ายทอดความรู้ครู credentialing 551 โปรแกรมมหาวิทยาลัยแช็ปแมนในส้ม แคลิฟอร์เนีย หนึ่งร้อยสิบสี่คนแบบสอบถามที่เสร็จสมบูรณ์ ผลลัพธ์ได้เป็นดังนี้: (a) ระหว่างคนแล้วเหลือสถานะต่ำ สอนอาชีพอันดับหกจากเจ็ดประการ และ (b) ระหว่าง ผู้ที่มีไม่ ได้ซ้าย จะพิจารณาออกจากอาชีพ สถานะต่ำสุดของอาชีพการจัดอันดับสี่จากเหตุผล 7 ในส่วนของการตอบสนองแบบเปิด การตอบสนองรวม "นี้เป็นงานได้รับ 52 done.” “We are not treated respectfully by anyone.” “I wouldn’t recommend this profession to anybody” (p. 7). Hall and Langton (2006) conducted a study that included l,l45 participants (634 people who were 12-25 years of age, 41 l adults 26 years and older, and l62 employers) who participated in telephone interviews regarding perceptions of the image of teaching, and the advantages/disadvantages of the teaching profession. The interviews lasted approximately 26 minutes each. Regarding the issue of status, teachers ranked fourth on the list, with doctors, lawyers, and politicians ranking higher. On a scale of l-10, with l0 signifying extremely high status, teachers received an average ranking of 6.8. This translates to low status because those who participated in the study viewed teachers as having few opportunities to obtain of power, money, and fame, as compared to other professions, which are perceived to have greater opportunities (e.g., doctors, lawyers, politicians). Of those who gave responses to the open-ended question regarding what comes to mind when thinking about a teaching career, approximately 50% of the respondents expressed negative comments, with 35% giving positive comments. The negative responses included issues such as pay, lack of authority and student behavior problems, lack of support or appreciation, stress, danger, and lack of status. Those who gave positive comments indicated job security, holidays, and hours of work. Based on the results from this study, when compared to other occupations, teachers seemed to have little power and status. Using a sample of 50,000 teachers with data generated from their participation in the U.S. Department of Education’s SASS, and the TFS, Provasnik and Dorfman (2005)
53 reported findings based on their analysis of teacher attrition data in 1999-2000. The most commonly identified reasons for leaving were: (a) decisions to retire (20%), (b) family issues (16%), (c) pregnancy and other family issues (14%), (d) wanting a higher salary (14%), and (e) the desire to move towards another career (13%). Some extemal factors that affect career decisions seem unrelated to bumout. Two common extemal factors affecting teacher turnover are when teachers change positions (move from one position to another, change schools, or move to another district) or retire from the profession. Teacher retirement is one form of tumover that is unavoidable (Boe, Bobbitt, & Cook, 1997). McLeskey et al. (2004) also cited personal reasons unrelated to burnout—teachers leave the field for reasons not related to their jobs, such as health issues, family issues, and relocating to another geographic location. Summary. This section of the review of the literature revealed that, since the 1970s, the main issues causing teacher burnout can be categorized within three sets of factors: individual/demographic factors, employment factors, and external factors. In individual/demographic factors, there has been some inconsistency in the findings pertaining to the effects of gender on burnout. Marital status has been shown, with consistency to affect job satisfaction and is related to bumout patterns. Across the literature, it has been shown that younger teachers and those with less experience are more prone to experience feelings of dissatisfaction and attrition. The findings have been mixed among studies that investigated differences in bumout patterns among elementary and secondary teachers. Few studies have examined the effects of teacher personality and teacher-student interactions on burnout; however, the results of studies that examined
54 teacher personality and the effect of teacher-student interaction on job satisfaction found that teachers with higher self-concept experienced greater success with their students; in tum, teachers with more positive interactions with their students seem to experience greater job satisfaction. In situational/school factors, issues such as student behavior issues, workload (including paperwork and class size), insufficient resources, lack of opportunity to interact with colleagues, administrative support, school climate, and salary were found to be correlated with teacher bumout. While researched less extensively, increased levels of parent involvement, and building leadership capacity and providing teachers with opportunities to participate in decision-making seem to be related to job satisfaction. Recently, extemal factors, such as promotional opportunities, have gamered attention among researchers. Factors such as community recognition, public perception, and community support have not been researched to a large extent; however, some studies have shown a correlation between these factors and intent to remain in the profession Other extemal factors, such as retirement or changing positions, can explain teacher tumover; however, these factors should not be considered as expressions of burnout. Teacher commitment seems to be adversely affected by role conflict, absence of sufficient administrative support, negative teacher-teacher relationships, negative teacher- student relationships, and negative teacher-parent relationships. Working in urban areas with minority, underachieving students affects commitment. Conversely, commitment can be increased through opportunities to participate in decision-making and by fostering
55 positive relations with students, parents, and other teachers. Increased salary and mentoring opportunities also have an effect on teacher perceptions of commitment. Applying these findings back to the theoretical models, someindividual/demographic factors (e. g., marital status and age) fit within Maslach et al.’s (2001) model, which also included individual/demographic factors, while findings in the situational/school factors section (e. g., teacher-to-teacher and teacher-to-student interactions, paperwork, student discipline issues, resources, colleague support, school climate, and salary) correlate with a combination of Maslach et al.’s model that contains situational factors, and Ouyang and Paprock’s (2006) model that contains school factors. When combined, these models encompass most of the major issues found in the literature; however, in isolation, both models have their shortcomings. Community factors are missing from Maslach et al.’s model, and demographic factors are missing from Ouyang and Paprock’s model. Factors Related to Special Education Teacher Burnout This section will address the shortages in the field of special education, as well as the theoretical, historical, and empirical findings related to personal/demographic factors, employment factors, and external factors, and how those variables relate to special education teacher commitment. Shortage of special education teachers. The scarcity of highly qualified special education teachers is currently a nationwide problem (Billingsley, 2004; Menlove, Garnes, & Salzberg, 2004; Miller et al., 1998; Thornton, Peltier, & Medina, 2007). Ninety-eight percent of school districts nationwide have shortages, and the problem is
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