In developed economies, such as North America, Western Europe and Japan, there also is an expected shortage of managerial competencies especially as the economy recovers. According to a report from the U.S. National Commission on Adult Literacy (2008), between 80 and 90 million American adults do not have the basic communication (also called people or ‘‘soft’’) skills to function well in the global economy or to earn family-sustaining wages. Alone among other advanced industrial countries, American 25–35-year olds are not as well educated as their parents (U.S. National
Commission on Adult Literacy, 2008). The Program for International Student Assessment reported that among the 30 OECD nations using measure of applied learning and problem-solving ability, the US students ranked 24th. The lack of technical knowledge workers continues to drive companies, such as Microsoft, Cisco and Wipro, to plead with the U.S. Congress to expand the number of H-1B visa permits granted each year.