amount of deformation can occur in the windings as a result of high through fault currents which can go undetected before an actual failure occurs. The voltage stress changes in the winding insulation structure after the onset of initial winding deformation. Over time the winding deformation will lead to partial discharges and gassing. However, by the time partial discharge and subsequent gassing appear degradation of the transformer has already occurred. Winding deformation is one of the first and fundamental precur- sors to indicate a degraded condition in the transformer windings. The FRA tests are performed at the factory and also in the field on transformers off- line. The results are compared to determine if changes have occurred in the transformer. Specialized test equipment is required to perform FRA or SFRA tests. In general, the procedure requires the transformer to be de-energized and isolated. Each individual phase of every winding is tested. One set of tests is done by injecting the signal at one end of the winding and measuring the other end. Another test is done by injecting the signal at one end of a primary winding and measuring the corresponding secondary winding.
5.8.6 DC Winding Resistance
This test measures the DC resistance of the transformer leads and windings and is made with a low-resistance ohmmeter or a Kelvin bridge. Winding resis- tance will change due to shorted turns, loose connections, or deteriorating con- tacts in tap changers. One of the problems associated with measuring the DC resistance of a transformer is the inductive circuit that must be energized. The inductance must be charged and stabilized in order to allow an accurate read- ing to be made. Special low-resistance ohmmeters are available specifically for the purpose of performing this test. A low-resistance ohmmeter specifically made for measuring transformers winding resistance is shown in Figure 5.21.
FIGURE 5.21
Low-resistance transformer ohmmeter. (Courtesy of Megger Inc., Valley Forge, PA.)
The test procedure for measuring DC winding resistance requires the trans- former to be de-energized and isolated. Both the primary and secondary ter- minals should be isolated from external connections, and measurements made on each phase of all windings. The measured resistance should be corrected to a common temperature such as 75°C or 85°C using the following formula:
R = R × ⎛CF + CT ⎞
⎝CF + WT ⎠
where
RC is the corrected resistance
RM is the measured resistance
CF is the correction factor for copper (234.5) or aluminum (225) windings
CT is the corrected temperature (75°C or 85°C)
WT is the winding temperature (°C) at time of test
Measurements should be made on all tap changer positions (if present) and compared to previous or factory test values. The test values after temperature correction should be compared with the factory test values or previous years’ test results for evaluating the condition of the transformer windings and leads. The acceptance criteria for the field-measured values after temperature correction should be within 2% of the factory values. A change greater than the acceptance criteria is indicative of short-circuited turns, poor joints, or bad tap changer contacts. This test should be performed during acceptance testing and when other maintenance electrical tests are conducted.
5.8.7 Transformer Core Ground Test
An IR measurement is made to determine the presence of unintentional core grounds. In general, the laminated cores of power transformers are insu- lated from ground, and intentionally grounded at a single point. Typically this grounding point can be accessed at the top of the transformer, either externally at a small bushing or internally behind a manhole cover.
Unintentional core grounds can develop due to shipping damage, though faults, or deterioration of core insulation. Any of these factors can cause exces- sive localized heating through circulating currents in the core and surrounding structure, leading to the generation of specific gases in the insulating oil.
The procedure for the test requires the transformer to be de-energized and isolated. The intentional core ground connection is lifted and the DC IR test is made between the core connection and the grounded transformer enclo-
sure. Acceptable readings are 100 MΩ or greater. An IR tester (megohmmeter
or Megger) for performing this test is shown in Figure 5.22.
5.8.8 Polarization Recovery Voltage Test
The transformer insulation systems are composites of two insulating materials: cellulose fiber (paper) and insulating oil. This structure shows
amount of deformation can occur in the windings as a result of high through fault currents which can go undetected before an actual failure occurs. The voltage stress changes in the winding insulation structure after the onset of initial winding deformation. Over time the winding deformation will lead to partial discharges and gassing. However, by the time partial discharge and subsequent gassing appear degradation of the transformer has already occurred. Winding deformation is one of the first and fundamental precur- sors to indicate a degraded condition in the transformer windings. The FRA tests are performed at the factory and also in the field on transformers off- line. The results are compared to determine if changes have occurred in the transformer. Specialized test equipment is required to perform FRA or SFRA tests. In general, the procedure requires the transformer to be de-energized and isolated. Each individual phase of every winding is tested. One set of tests is done by injecting the signal at one end of the winding and measuring the other end. Another test is done by injecting the signal at one end of a primary winding and measuring the corresponding secondary winding.
5.8.6 DC Winding Resistance
This test measures the DC resistance of the transformer leads and windings and is made with a low-resistance ohmmeter or a Kelvin bridge. Winding resis- tance will change due to shorted turns, loose connections, or deteriorating con- tacts in tap changers. One of the problems associated with measuring the DC resistance of a transformer is the inductive circuit that must be energized. The inductance must be charged and stabilized in order to allow an accurate read- ing to be made. Special low-resistance ohmmeters are available specifically for the purpose of performing this test. A low-resistance ohmmeter specifically made for measuring transformers winding resistance is shown in Figure 5.21.
FIGURE 5.21
Low-resistance transformer ohmmeter. (Courtesy of Megger Inc., Valley Forge, PA.)
The test procedure for measuring DC winding resistance requires the trans- former to be de-energized and isolated. Both the primary and secondary ter- minals should be isolated from external connections, and measurements made on each phase of all windings. The measured resistance should be corrected to a common temperature such as 75°C or 85°C using the following formula:
R = R × ⎛CF + CT ⎞
⎝CF + WT ⎠
where
RC is the corrected resistance
RM is the measured resistance
CF is the correction factor for copper (234.5) or aluminum (225) windings
CT is the corrected temperature (75°C or 85°C)
WT is the winding temperature (°C) at time of test
Measurements should be made on all tap changer positions (if present) and compared to previous or factory test values. The test values after temperature correction should be compared with the factory test values or previous years’ test results for evaluating the condition of the transformer windings and leads. The acceptance criteria for the field-measured values after temperature correction should be within 2% of the factory values. A change greater than the acceptance criteria is indicative of short-circuited turns, poor joints, or bad tap changer contacts. This test should be performed during acceptance testing and when other maintenance electrical tests are conducted.
5.8.7 Transformer Core Ground Test
An IR measurement is made to determine the presence of unintentional core grounds. In general, the laminated cores of power transformers are insu- lated from ground, and intentionally grounded at a single point. Typically this grounding point can be accessed at the top of the transformer, either externally at a small bushing or internally behind a manhole cover.
Unintentional core grounds can develop due to shipping damage, though faults, or deterioration of core insulation. Any of these factors can cause exces- sive localized heating through circulating currents in the core and surrounding structure, leading to the generation of specific gases in the insulating oil.
The procedure for the test requires the transformer to be de-energized and isolated. The intentional core ground connection is lifted and the DC IR test is made between the core connection and the grounded transformer enclo-
sure. Acceptable readings are 100 MΩ or greater. An IR tester (megohmmeter
or Megger) for performing this test is shown in Figure 5.22.
5.8.8 Polarization Recovery Voltage Test
The transformer insulation systems are composites of two insulating materials: cellulose fiber (paper) and insulating oil. This structure shows
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