COX-independent mechanisms contribute to the anti-tumor effects of aspirin by inhibiting PPARδ (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor) (46) and the NF-κB pathway (47–49). Aspirin can also exert immunomodulatory effects by altering chemokines (CCL2 and CXCL10) that lead to decreased numbers of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and an increase in cytotoxic CD8+ T-cells