Pulmonary causes
Pulmonary conditions such as pulmonary embolism,
pneumonia, pneumothorax and pleurisy may present with
pleuritic type chest pain. Karnath et al (2004) describe
pleuritic chest pain as pain that varies with the respiratory
cycle and is exacerbated during inspiration and coughing.
It may be described as sharp in nature and unilateral.
According to Sabatine and Cannon (2011), chest pain
associated with a spontaneous pneumothorax is sudden in
onset and usually accompanied with shortness of breath.
Karnath et al (2004) comment that the pain may radiate to
the shoulder on the same side as the pneumothorax.
Pneumothorax may be experienced in tall young men or
in those patients with underlying pulmonary disease, such
as cystic fibrosis or chronic obstructive airways disease
(Sabatine and Cannon, 2011).
Patients experiencing a pulmonary emboli may be
asymptomatic or present with a sudden onset of dyspnoea
and pleuritic chest pain and hypoxia. Sabatine and Cannon
(2011) state that massive pulmonary embolus may cause
retrosternal severe and persistent chest pain with associated
symptoms of hypotension, syncope and signs of right
heart failure, such as jugular vein distension and peripheral
oedema. Pulmonary emboli should form part of the
differential diagnosis in those who have undergone recent
surgery, who have an underlying malignancy, or who have
reduced mobility (Karnath et al, 2004).
Gastrointestinal causes
Lenfant (2010) states that gastrointestinal disorders are
the most common cause of non-cardiac chest pain, with
the most frequent diagnosis being gastro-oesophageal
reflux disease. Other causes of gastrointestinal-associated
chest pain include oesophageal spasm, pancreatitis,
oesophageal rupture or tear, cholecystitis and peptic ulcer
disease.
Sabatine and Cannon (2011) report that chest pain
associated with oesophageal disorders can be exacerbated
with alcohol consumption, after taking aspirin and/or
after eating a large meal. The patient may complain that
the pain is worse when lying down and is relieved when
sitting up or following the administration of antacids.
The pain may be located retrosternally and, in a similar
manner to ischaemic chest pain, may radiate to the
neck, jaw and arms. According to Hall and Simpson
(2009), this form of chest pain can be relieved by
short-acting nitrates, such as glyceryl trinitrate. Unlike
ischaemic chest pain, oesophageal pain is not brought on
by exertion. This information can be gleaned during
history taking.
Oesophageal tears or rupture, such as Mallory-Weiss or
Boerhaave syndrome, are normally associated with prolonged
vomiting episodes that may come to light during
history taking. Other symptoms associated with a tear or
rupture are described by Karnath et al (2004) as neck
swelling and subcutaneous emphysema, as well as pain
radiating from the neck to the epigastric region that is
exacerbated by swallowing.
In those with peptic ulcer disease, symptoms may occur
within 60–90 minutes after a meal and are relieved by
antacids. Pain assessment may demonstrate that the pain
is located in the epigastric region but may radiate into the
chest and shoulders (Hall and Simpson, 2009). The key
distinguishing characteristic of peptic ulcer disease is that
the pain is relieved with the intake of antacids or food.
Haemodynamic assessment
Haemodynamic assessment is integral in assessing the
stability of the patient and their perfusion status. In
addition, according to Scott and MacInnes (2006)
haemodynamic assessment can guide subsequent nursing
interventions. Integral to the assessment is the recording
of the patient’s vital signs that are directly related to the
cardiovascular system: pulse and blood pressure.
Respiratory rate, oxygen saturation, temperature and
level of consciousness, however, may be beneficial in
establishing differential diagnoses.
Tough (2004) advises recording blood pressure in both
arms when a patient presents with chest pain. A difference
of >20 mmHg may indicate aortic dissection and can assist
in formulating a diagnosis. Zitkus (2010) advises to look
for ‘red Flags’ during the assessment process that may help
in formulating a diagnosis. Red flags include:
Abnormal vital signs (bradycardia, tachycardia,
tachypnoea, hyper- or hypotension)
Fever, chills, malaise or productive cough
Pain worse on inspiration
Pain relieved by sitting forward
Symptoms persisting for more than 20 minutes.
Haemodynamic assessment is essential in determining
acuity and the urgency of intervention, as well as
providing information that aids in formulating a
diagnosis.
Conclusion
Chest pain is a common clinical presentation to the
healthcare system. NICE (2010) has published guidelines
to aid in assessment and subsequent intervention when
providing care for the patient with chest pain. A thorough
assessment of chest pain and the patient’s haemodynamic
status is key in determining potential causes, and can
guide further nursing intervention.
There are several potential causes of chest pain and a
targeted assessment is essential in confirming or ruling
out a cardiac cause. Assessment tools, such as OLD
CART, help in eliciting the most relevant information and
characteristics of the patient’s symptoms. Nurses assessing
patients with chest pain need to have a rounded knowledge
of potential chest pain causes when considering a
diagnosis. BJCN
Allmasetty S, Seepana S, Griffith KE (2009) 10 steps before you refer for
chest pain. Br J Cardiol 16(2): 80–4
Anderson JL, Adams CD, Antman EM, et al (2007) ACC/AHA 2007
guidelines for the management of patients with unstable angina/non-
ST-Elevation myocardial infarction: a report of the American College
of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice
Pulmonary causes
Pulmonary conditions such as pulmonary embolism,
pneumonia, pneumothorax and pleurisy may present with
pleuritic type chest pain. Karnath et al (2004) describe
pleuritic chest pain as pain that varies with the respiratory
cycle and is exacerbated during inspiration and coughing.
It may be described as sharp in nature and unilateral.
According to Sabatine and Cannon (2011), chest pain
associated with a spontaneous pneumothorax is sudden in
onset and usually accompanied with shortness of breath.
Karnath et al (2004) comment that the pain may radiate to
the shoulder on the same side as the pneumothorax.
Pneumothorax may be experienced in tall young men or
in those patients with underlying pulmonary disease, such
as cystic fibrosis or chronic obstructive airways disease
(Sabatine and Cannon, 2011).
Patients experiencing a pulmonary emboli may be
asymptomatic or present with a sudden onset of dyspnoea
and pleuritic chest pain and hypoxia. Sabatine and Cannon
(2011) state that massive pulmonary embolus may cause
retrosternal severe and persistent chest pain with associated
symptoms of hypotension, syncope and signs of right
heart failure, such as jugular vein distension and peripheral
oedema. Pulmonary emboli should form part of the
differential diagnosis in those who have undergone recent
surgery, who have an underlying malignancy, or who have
reduced mobility (Karnath et al, 2004).
Gastrointestinal causes
Lenfant (2010) states that gastrointestinal disorders are
the most common cause of non-cardiac chest pain, with
the most frequent diagnosis being gastro-oesophageal
reflux disease. Other causes of gastrointestinal-associated
chest pain include oesophageal spasm, pancreatitis,
oesophageal rupture or tear, cholecystitis and peptic ulcer
disease.
Sabatine and Cannon (2011) report that chest pain
associated with oesophageal disorders can be exacerbated
with alcohol consumption, after taking aspirin and/or
after eating a large meal. The patient may complain that
the pain is worse when lying down and is relieved when
sitting up or following the administration of antacids.
The pain may be located retrosternally and, in a similar
manner to ischaemic chest pain, may radiate to the
neck, jaw and arms. According to Hall and Simpson
(2009), this form of chest pain can be relieved by
short-acting nitrates, such as glyceryl trinitrate. Unlike
ischaemic chest pain, oesophageal pain is not brought on
by exertion. This information can be gleaned during
history taking.
Oesophageal tears or rupture, such as Mallory-Weiss or
Boerhaave syndrome, are normally associated with prolonged
vomiting episodes that may come to light during
history taking. Other symptoms associated with a tear or
rupture are described by Karnath et al (2004) as neck
swelling and subcutaneous emphysema, as well as pain
radiating from the neck to the epigastric region that is
exacerbated by swallowing.
In those with peptic ulcer disease, symptoms may occur
within 60–90 minutes after a meal and are relieved by
antacids. Pain assessment may demonstrate that the pain
is located in the epigastric region but may radiate into the
chest and shoulders (Hall and Simpson, 2009). The key
distinguishing characteristic of peptic ulcer disease is that
the pain is relieved with the intake of antacids or food.
Haemodynamic assessment
Haemodynamic assessment is integral in assessing the
stability of the patient and their perfusion status. In
addition, according to Scott and MacInnes (2006)
haemodynamic assessment can guide subsequent nursing
interventions. Integral to the assessment is the recording
of the patient’s vital signs that are directly related to the
cardiovascular system: pulse and blood pressure.
Respiratory rate, oxygen saturation, temperature and
level of consciousness, however, may be beneficial in
establishing differential diagnoses.
Tough (2004) advises recording blood pressure in both
arms when a patient presents with chest pain. A difference
of >20 mmHg may indicate aortic dissection and can assist
in formulating a diagnosis. Zitkus (2010) advises to look
for ‘red Flags’ during the assessment process that may help
in formulating a diagnosis. Red flags include:
Abnormal vital signs (bradycardia, tachycardia,
tachypnoea, hyper- or hypotension)
Fever, chills, malaise or productive cough
Pain worse on inspiration
Pain relieved by sitting forward
Symptoms persisting for more than 20 minutes.
Haemodynamic assessment is essential in determining
acuity and the urgency of intervention, as well as
providing information that aids in formulating a
diagnosis.
Conclusion
Chest pain is a common clinical presentation to the
healthcare system. NICE (2010) has published guidelines
to aid in assessment and subsequent intervention when
providing care for the patient with chest pain. A thorough
assessment of chest pain and the patient’s haemodynamic
status is key in determining potential causes, and can
guide further nursing intervention.
There are several potential causes of chest pain and a
targeted assessment is essential in confirming or ruling
out a cardiac cause. Assessment tools, such as OLD
CART, help in eliciting the most relevant information and
characteristics of the patient’s symptoms. Nurses assessing
patients with chest pain need to have a rounded knowledge
of potential chest pain causes when considering a
diagnosis. BJCN
Allmasetty S, Seepana S, Griffith KE (2009) 10 steps before you refer for
chest pain. Br J Cardiol 16(2): 80–4
Anderson JL, Adams CD, Antman EM, et al (2007) ACC/AHA 2007
guidelines for the management of patients with unstable angina/non-
ST-Elevation myocardial infarction: a report of the American College
of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice
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