Parallels between the politics of the early 1990s in Rwanda and earlier political processes of the late 1950s are striking. At the same time, dramatic differences between these episodes of conflict are sobering, most notably in the scale of violence and loss of life, and the extent of destruction of the country's social fabric and its material infrastructure. Understanding these complicated dynamics is an important challenge for those attempting to revisit Rwandan history and move beyond the debates noted at the beginning of this article.
In reassessing Rwandan history, a focus on changes made by Europeans is important but should not be allowed to deflect attention from those aspects in which Rwandans themselves were involved. Years ago, in an analysis of colonial state building in Rwanda, I argued that politics and policies of the state need to be seen as critical elements in shaping ethnic relations and ethnic consciousness.[28] From this perspective there is ample evidence that it is in the reach of those in power to manage and dampen ethnic tensions by the types of policies they pursue. Paradoxically, however, "managing" ethnic tensions requires transcending them and addressing other forms of social inequality as well.
A case in point is found in the efforts of the Habyarimana regime to dampen ethnic tensions over the period from 1973 to the mid-1980s. Ultimately, the regime's controversial policy of ethnic quotas for government jobs and educational opportunities undermined the effort. Attempts to reduce ethnic tensions did not relieve class inequalities and other serious problems with the patrimonial state in Rwanda. Thus, when faced with a political crisis, those in power found it too easy to use the "ethnic card" to divert attention from unresolved contradictions in the country's political economy.
One of the problems in focusing obsessively on ethnicity is that this may lead one to overlook questions of power and class. Surely such issues were important in the contestation of the 1950s, as in the 1990s, but how were they important? Perhaps in revisiting this history, Rwandans will wish to explore more fully the issues and inequalities that underlay these political conflicts--conflicts that were only partly "ethnic."
To do so, historians and others will have to engage with the competing visions of the past discussed in this essay. They may have to go beyond them rather than choose between them, but they cannot avoid them. To judge by past experience, the way in which the powerholders address these issues could have an important bearing on the lives of millions of people over the coming generation.