Figure 1 Model representing the relations among home literacy experiences and child outcomes. Arrows represent statistically significant relations, as tested with stringent hierarchical regressions that controlled for related variables such as nonverbal in- telligence and age, as well as parent print exposure and education. Most of the pathways specified in the figure were tested with the kindergarten and grade 1 cohorts (either in the present article or in Senechal et al., 1998), but a few pathways could only be tested with one cohort (i.e., the relation between book exposure in grade 1 and reading in grades 1 and 3; the relations between receptive language, phonological awareness, and early literacy skills in kindergarten and grade 1).