Arguments about novelty
It may as well be said outright that there is no agreement in the general ethics literature on whether or not new technologies have introduced new ethical issues. Some authors argue that recent advances have introduced new issues; others argue that they have not.
Kuflik (1992) maintains that the issues most often identified in computer ethics are not in fact new, although they may be heightened by the effects of technology. Kuflik first sorts the issues into four areas of concern:
- (1) direct risks to users;
- (2) privacy;
- (3) reliability; and
- (4) responsibility.
He then considers each area, pointing out the ways in which those issues are fundamentally the same as previously known problems. For example, the potential effect of computing on the work conditions and skills of the user (which Kuflik refers to as the "dumbing down" effect) is shown to be fundamentally the same as other historical changes: the development of writing led to the loss of oral skills, the introduction of the telephone stunted the art of written correspondence, and so on.
Hauptman and Motin (1994) agree that new technology does not require new ethics; in fact, they claim that terms such as "cyberethics" and "virtual morality" are nonsense. Even though information technology may result in more complex systems, the basic ethical commitments remain the same, and traditional ethical considerations are shown to apply to issues of privacy, confidentiality, and other aspects of networked communication. Hauptman and Motin also point out that rudeness and inconsiderate behavior ("flaming," for example) should not be confused with ethical issues.
In contrast, Ladd (1991) argues that new information technologies do require new ethical concepts, or at least substantial restructuring of traditional concepts. In particular, he considers questions of responsibility. Denying the concept of technological neutrality and focusing on questions raised in shared human-computer tasks, he concludes that shifting responsibility from human to computer results in dangerous risks, and should be carefully evaluated.
Severson (1995) brings the issues a bit closer to home, arguing that library automation creates new circumstances "beyond the ken of our moral sensibilities," confusing new realms in which old habits of evaluation are inadequate. He argues that as professionals, with their increased freedom and responsibility, enter this new environment, they must reexamine traditional ethical principles for guidance.
However, neither Ladd nor Severson present compelling arguments to pinpoint just how new technologies have changed ethics in the information professions; as a result, their conclusions are too general to be convincing. If new ethical issues are to be identified, a closer examination of specific instances in the information professions is necessary.
Special issues in librarianship
The library literature suggests several areas in which new or substantively modified ethical issues may be identified. Leaving aside issues such as copyright enforcement, which areclearly legal issues, and problems such as rude electronic mail messages, which are clearly matters of etiquette, the general areas of concern include:
- privacy and confidentiality;
- acquisitions and censorship;
- archiving and preservation; and
- deskilling and gender bias.
The remainder of this article considers each of these areas in turn.
Privacy and confidentiality
Privacy and confidentiality have always been crucial issues in librarianship and information management. Information requests, circulation data, personal data collected in the course of business, and similar information have always been treated with care, whether stored in paper or electronic form. But technology may exacerbate risks to privacy and confidentiality, resulting in new responsibilities.
Dunlop and Kling (1991, pp. 410-20), in the introduction to the "Social control and privacy" section of their book, argue that the ubiquity and interconnectedness of computerized and networked record keeping increase the likelihood of misuse or error. With so much data being stored and transferred, incorrect information is more likely to be entered and then propagated into other databases; even when errors are detected, they are difficult to track and eliminate. And since computerized records are often accepted as infallible, inappropriate decisions may be made based on the flawed data. Dunlop and Kling argue that these risks are more than just a change in the magnitude of previously experienced problem; on the contrary, interconnected databases carry new risks.
Dunlop and Kling's analysis addresses computerized record keeping in general, but their conclusion may apply to librarianship as well. Although confidentiality is taken for granted in reference work, electronic communication increases the chance of inadvertent breaches. Hauptman (1988) speculates that librarians and information pro