methods consisting of small beach seines, dip nets, and a variety of small trap nets. In the collection of marine aquarium fish, diving gear (e.g., mask, snorkel and SCUBA) is commonly employed with hand nets, fish-holding buckets, and barrier nets serving to corral and fence the fish. Fishing occurs primarily from small boats anchored in shallow waters (less than ten meters, or about 30 feet) over coral reefs. Fish collected from the wild and destined for pet shops worldwide are typically collected in remote fishing sites. After collection, fish may spend from a few days to several weeks in fish camps before reaching importing and distribution warehouses worldwide. This time period is dependent on capture, storage, and transport logistics. In the fishing camps, the fish are typically separated by species, graded by size, and counted while awaiting a transport boat or local dealer. A local dealer using a transport boat, motorcycle, or just a bicycle may collect fish from various locations and maintain them in hauling boxes until they reach a secondary holding facility or storehouse. The fish are then mass consolidated, arriving from storehouses in different regions. In local exporting warehouses, the fish are sorted again, placed in oxygenated bags, and air-shipped to major centers of distribution throughout the world (Figure 1).
Countries that traditionally export wild-caught freshwater aquarium fish include Colombia, Peru, and Brazil in South America; Thailand and Indonesia in Southeast Asia; Congo, Nigeria, and Malawi in Africa. Singapore serves as the largest worldwide center and clearinghouse for the import, and export of both fresh and marine ornamental fish. Los Angeles, Miami, and Tampa are the major centers for the ornamental fish trade in the US. From these ports of entry, large importers, wholesalers, or trans-shippers
may distribute fish to smaller franchises that sell to retailers that deal directly with home aquarists. In the exporting, importing, and larger warehouses, fishes are acclimated and water changes are provided for the shipping containers. To reduce transport costs, the trans-shipper primarily consoli- dates orders, receives, and redistributes the consignments generally without acclimatization of the fish. However, depending upon length of time between shipments and the number of fish sent to customers, some trans-shippers will also redistribute fish, re-oxygenate bags and do water changes for the transporting container.
Although some marine aquarium fish and invertebrates are aquacultured by the industry and hobbyists, most of the marine ornamentalsover 90% are from wild-caught fisher- ies (Chapman 1997; Cato and Brown 2003) and generally command higher prices than freshwater fish (Chapman 1997; Cato and Brown 2003). The majority of the marine aquarium livestock originate from tropical oceans in the archipelagoes of Indonesia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and central Pacific Islands (e.g., Hawaii). Others are also imported from the Caribbean (e.g., Puerto Rico) and Red Sea regions. Important ecological considerations in the ornamental aquarium trade The purpose of managing a fishery is to maintain the resource so that it is renewable and therefore sustainable. Responsible aquaculture practices rely on sustainable production systems, to minimize impacts on the natural environment, and support resource conservation. In other words, the harvest of fish from the wild or their domestic culture, if performed with sound foundations in ecological and economic principles, can be sustainable and self-reliant commercial industries.
In traditional subsistence fisheries, fishermen use primitive and inefficient gear to capture most aquarium fish. How- ever, supply of aquarium fish is not inexhaustible, and signs of over-fishing are becoming apparent in localized areas. With the high demand and pricing of many beautiful spe- cies, ornamental fish are being harvested at greater volumes and higher rates, threatening the viability or sustainability of the fishery (Chao et al. 2001; Gil and Martinez 2001; Vagelli and Erdmann 2002; Cato and Brown 2003; Lunn and Moreau 2004).
Unfortunately, in a few instances unscrupulous collection techniques have led to the demise of local fish populations.
Figure 1. Schematic representation of typical distribution/trade process for livestock (e.g., fishes, corals, and other invertebrates) destined for ornamental aquarium use. The number of business intermediaries in the distribution chain depends primarily on the species (e.g., origin, abundance, popularity) and proximity to markets. The ornamental fish trade is driven primarily by consumer demand and environmental issues, hence the link from the consumer to the sustainable stocks or farmer.
Credits: Frank A. Chapman
4The Ornamental Fish Trade: An Introduction with Perspectives for Responsible Aquarium Fish ...
Alterations of natural riverine and marine habitats, caused by collection or other unrelated human activities, have also taken their toll. To facilitate the capture of aquarium fish in the wild, some collectors may use highly toxic substances such as sodium cyanide in marine environments, and rote- none in freshwater rivers and streams. The use of cyanide is not acceptable because it can have long-term deleterious health effects on the captured fish and the surrounding environment. Local populations of freshwater fish and their surrounding environment have also suffered from strip logging activities, oil drilling, and mining operations (e.g., increase in siltation and residues of toxic chemicals such as mercury for the extraction of alluvial gold). In South America, regional biologists indicate the indiscriminate use of herbicides and pesticides, to control the cultivation of plants used for manufacture of illicit drugs, percolate directly in the water stream deteriorating water quality and deleteriously affect the health of fish and invertebrate fauna.
The greatest losses of wild-caught aquarium fish may occur during the handling period between capture, local export- ing/importing warehouses, and transportation docks. While in transit, fish may be subjected to physical injury, extreme changes in water quality conditions, water temperature fluc- tuations, and indiscriminate exposure to toxic chemicals used as prophylactic treatments for disease control. Also it has been determined that mortality of captured fish from the wild can be species dependant. For example, mortality has been estimated to be high (e.g., 80%) in some marine tropical fish such as the Banggai cardinal fish to a low of 6% for some freshwater fish species such as the cardinal tetra (Chao et al. 2001; Gil and Martinez 2001; Vagelli and Erdmann 2002; Cato and Brown 2003; Lunn and Moreau 2004). To reduce injury and mortalities incurred in storage and post-shipment mortality, several of the larger import- ing wholesalers have established their own guidelines for fish collection, standardized handling procedures, and even assembled their own gathering stations or warehouses at major exporting centers worldwide. Local community- based organizations and international institutions have also been organized/formed to achieve market-driven product quality standards and sustainability in the marine aquarium industry. Post-shipment mortality (death-on-arrival) from exporter to importer has been greatly reduced to less than 5% (Lim 2005).
Most of the ‘live rock’, corals, and invertebrates are also collected from the wild. The use of ‘live rock’ has increased drastically due to the rise in popularity of reef tanks. Col- lecting or mining of ‘live rock’ and many types of coral is conducted by snorkeling or wading, often using a hammer
and chisel to remove pieces from the reef. Problems with wild-collection methods include generation of rubble and habitat damage. Fiji and Indonesia are currently the world’s largest suppliers of ‘live rock’ and coral. The United States is the major importer of ‘live rock’ and corals (Cato and Brown 2003).
Culture of live rock and corals has increased with culture operations currently in the Indo-Pacific (Fiji, the Solomon Islands, Indonesia, and the Philippines) and the United States (Florida and Hawaii). Propagation of ‘live rock’ and many types of corals is conducted through a variety of methods. The most popular method utilizes pieces of limestone or other rock (or substrate), simply placed in selected areas on the sea floor, and allowed to be ‘seeded’ by a myriad of naturally occurring organisms, forming the ‘live rock’. The ‘live rock’ can then be harvested after the organ- isms have achieved marketable size characteristics. More complex and labor intensive methods involve attaching coral fragments to selected pieces of rock, which are placed back into the wild or cultured in land-based operations. The clippings from the new growth are used in the reef tanks. The original parent stock may be left at sea to continue to grow and may also be used to seed previously damaged natural reefs.
High numbers of herbivorous animals, such as hermit crabs, snails, and shrimps, are harvested annually for the aquarium trade. Observations and management of a mini- reef tank in our laboratory highlights the essential role of these invertebrates in minimizing growth of algae and other organisms. Without grazers, algae may quickly dominate a reef. Since animals occupying different trophic levels have valuable roles in the wild, overfishing of key species may have important ecological consequences. Fortunately, there is an increased interest and technology emerging to culture these valuable and highly sought invertebrates. Being an educated consumer Being an aquarist and fish hobbyist is enjoyable, relaxing, and an educational and rewarding experience. Like owners of other traditional pets (such as dogs, cats, and birds), aquarists maintain livestock that require a strong commit- ment and responsibili
methods consisting of small beach seines, dip nets, and a variety of small trap nets. In the collection of marine aquarium fish, diving gear (e.g., mask, snorkel and SCUBA) is commonly employed with hand nets, fish-holding buckets, and barrier nets serving to corral and fence the fish. Fishing occurs primarily from small boats anchored in shallow waters (less than ten meters, or about 30 feet) over coral reefs. Fish collected from the wild and destined for pet shops worldwide are typically collected in remote fishing sites. After collection, fish may spend from a few days to several weeks in fish camps before reaching importing and distribution warehouses worldwide. This time period is dependent on capture, storage, and transport logistics. In the fishing camps, the fish are typically separated by species, graded by size, and counted while awaiting a transport boat or local dealer. A local dealer using a transport boat, motorcycle, or just a bicycle may collect fish from various locations and maintain them in hauling boxes until they reach a secondary holding facility or storehouse. The fish are then mass consolidated, arriving from storehouses in different regions. In local exporting warehouses, the fish are sorted again, placed in oxygenated bags, and air-shipped to major centers of distribution throughout the world (Figure 1).
Countries that traditionally export wild-caught freshwater aquarium fish include Colombia, Peru, and Brazil in South America; Thailand and Indonesia in Southeast Asia; Congo, Nigeria, and Malawi in Africa. Singapore serves as the largest worldwide center and clearinghouse for the import, and export of both fresh and marine ornamental fish. Los Angeles, Miami, and Tampa are the major centers for the ornamental fish trade in the US. From these ports of entry, large importers, wholesalers, or trans-shippers
may distribute fish to smaller franchises that sell to retailers that deal directly with home aquarists. In the exporting, importing, and larger warehouses, fishes are acclimated and water changes are provided for the shipping containers. To reduce transport costs, the trans-shipper primarily consoli- dates orders, receives, and redistributes the consignments generally without acclimatization of the fish. However, depending upon length of time between shipments and the number of fish sent to customers, some trans-shippers will also redistribute fish, re-oxygenate bags and do water changes for the transporting container.
Although some marine aquarium fish and invertebrates are aquacultured by the industry and hobbyists, most of the marine ornamentalsover 90% are from wild-caught fisher- ies (Chapman 1997; Cato and Brown 2003) and generally command higher prices than freshwater fish (Chapman 1997; Cato and Brown 2003). The majority of the marine aquarium livestock originate from tropical oceans in the archipelagoes of Indonesia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and central Pacific Islands (e.g., Hawaii). Others are also imported from the Caribbean (e.g., Puerto Rico) and Red Sea regions. Important ecological considerations in the ornamental aquarium trade The purpose of managing a fishery is to maintain the resource so that it is renewable and therefore sustainable. Responsible aquaculture practices rely on sustainable production systems, to minimize impacts on the natural environment, and support resource conservation. In other words, the harvest of fish from the wild or their domestic culture, if performed with sound foundations in ecological and economic principles, can be sustainable and self-reliant commercial industries.
In traditional subsistence fisheries, fishermen use primitive and inefficient gear to capture most aquarium fish. How- ever, supply of aquarium fish is not inexhaustible, and signs of over-fishing are becoming apparent in localized areas. With the high demand and pricing of many beautiful spe- cies, ornamental fish are being harvested at greater volumes and higher rates, threatening the viability or sustainability of the fishery (Chao et al. 2001; Gil and Martinez 2001; Vagelli and Erdmann 2002; Cato and Brown 2003; Lunn and Moreau 2004).
Unfortunately, in a few instances unscrupulous collection techniques have led to the demise of local fish populations.
Figure 1. Schematic representation of typical distribution/trade process for livestock (e.g., fishes, corals, and other invertebrates) destined for ornamental aquarium use. The number of business intermediaries in the distribution chain depends primarily on the species (e.g., origin, abundance, popularity) and proximity to markets. The ornamental fish trade is driven primarily by consumer demand and environmental issues, hence the link from the consumer to the sustainable stocks or farmer.
Credits: Frank A. Chapman
4The Ornamental Fish Trade: An Introduction with Perspectives for Responsible Aquarium Fish ...
Alterations of natural riverine and marine habitats, caused by collection or other unrelated human activities, have also taken their toll. To facilitate the capture of aquarium fish in the wild, some collectors may use highly toxic substances such as sodium cyanide in marine environments, and rote- none in freshwater rivers and streams. The use of cyanide is not acceptable because it can have long-term deleterious health effects on the captured fish and the surrounding environment. Local populations of freshwater fish and their surrounding environment have also suffered from strip logging activities, oil drilling, and mining operations (e.g., increase in siltation and residues of toxic chemicals such as mercury for the extraction of alluvial gold). In South America, regional biologists indicate the indiscriminate use of herbicides and pesticides, to control the cultivation of plants used for manufacture of illicit drugs, percolate directly in the water stream deteriorating water quality and deleteriously affect the health of fish and invertebrate fauna.
The greatest losses of wild-caught aquarium fish may occur during the handling period between capture, local export- ing/importing warehouses, and transportation docks. While in transit, fish may be subjected to physical injury, extreme changes in water quality conditions, water temperature fluc- tuations, and indiscriminate exposure to toxic chemicals used as prophylactic treatments for disease control. Also it has been determined that mortality of captured fish from the wild can be species dependant. For example, mortality has been estimated to be high (e.g., 80%) in some marine tropical fish such as the Banggai cardinal fish to a low of 6% for some freshwater fish species such as the cardinal tetra (Chao et al. 2001; Gil and Martinez 2001; Vagelli and Erdmann 2002; Cato and Brown 2003; Lunn and Moreau 2004). To reduce injury and mortalities incurred in storage and post-shipment mortality, several of the larger import- ing wholesalers have established their own guidelines for fish collection, standardized handling procedures, and even assembled their own gathering stations or warehouses at major exporting centers worldwide. Local community- based organizations and international institutions have also been organized/formed to achieve market-driven product quality standards and sustainability in the marine aquarium industry. Post-shipment mortality (death-on-arrival) from exporter to importer has been greatly reduced to less than 5% (Lim 2005).
Most of the ‘live rock’, corals, and invertebrates are also collected from the wild. The use of ‘live rock’ has increased drastically due to the rise in popularity of reef tanks. Col- lecting or mining of ‘live rock’ and many types of coral is conducted by snorkeling or wading, often using a hammer
and chisel to remove pieces from the reef. Problems with wild-collection methods include generation of rubble and habitat damage. Fiji and Indonesia are currently the world’s largest suppliers of ‘live rock’ and coral. The United States is the major importer of ‘live rock’ and corals (Cato and Brown 2003).
Culture of live rock and corals has increased with culture operations currently in the Indo-Pacific (Fiji, the Solomon Islands, Indonesia, and the Philippines) and the United States (Florida and Hawaii). Propagation of ‘live rock’ and many types of corals is conducted through a variety of methods. The most popular method utilizes pieces of limestone or other rock (or substrate), simply placed in selected areas on the sea floor, and allowed to be ‘seeded’ by a myriad of naturally occurring organisms, forming the ‘live rock’. The ‘live rock’ can then be harvested after the organ- isms have achieved marketable size characteristics. More complex and labor intensive methods involve attaching coral fragments to selected pieces of rock, which are placed back into the wild or cultured in land-based operations. The clippings from the new growth are used in the reef tanks. The original parent stock may be left at sea to continue to grow and may also be used to seed previously damaged natural reefs.
High numbers of herbivorous animals, such as hermit crabs, snails, and shrimps, are harvested annually for the aquarium trade. Observations and management of a mini- reef tank in our laboratory highlights the essential role of these invertebrates in minimizing growth of algae and other organisms. Without grazers, algae may quickly dominate a reef. Since animals occupying different trophic levels have valuable roles in the wild, overfishing of key species may have important ecological consequences. Fortunately, there is an increased interest and technology emerging to culture these valuable and highly sought invertebrates. Being an educated consumer Being an aquarist and fish hobbyist is enjoyable, relaxing, and an educational and rewarding experience. Like owners of other traditional pets (such as dogs, cats, and birds), aquarists maintain livestock that require a strong commit- ment and responsibili
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