T is leads instructors/designers to ask two signifi cant questions: Is there
a single “best” approach and is one approach more effi cient than the others? Given that learning is a complex, drawn out process that seems to be
strongly infl uenced by one’s prior knowledge, perhaps the best answer to
these questions is “it depends.” Because learning is infl uenced by many factors from many sources, the learning process itself is constantly changing,
both in nature and diversity, as it progresses (Shuell, 1990). What might be
most eff ective for novice learners encountering a complex body of knowledge for the fi rst time, would not be eff ective, effi cient
or stimulating for a learner who is more familiar with
the content. Typically, one does not teach facts the
same way that concepts or problem-solving are taught;
likewise, one teaches diff erently depending on the profi ciency level of the learners involved. Both the instructional strategies employed and the content addressed
(in both depth and breadth) would vary based on the
level of the learners.
So how does a designer facilitate a proper match
between learner, content, and strategies? Consider,
fi rst of all, how learners’ knowledge changes as they
become more familiar with a given content. As people acquire more experience with a given content, they progress along a
low-to-high knowledge continuum from 1) being able to recognize and
apply the standard rules, facts, and operations of a profession (knowing
what), to 2) thinking like a professional to extrapolate from these general
rules to particular, problematic cases (knowing how), to 3) developing and
testing new forms of understanding and actions when familiar categories
and ways of thinking fail (refl ection-in-action) (Schon, 1987). In a sense,
the points along this continuum mirror the points of the learning theory
continuum described earlier. Depending on where the learners “sit” on
the continuum in terms of the development of their professional knowledge (knowing what vs. knowing how vs. refl ection-in-action), the most
appropriate instructional approach for advancing the learners’ knowledge
at that particular level would be the one advocated by the theory that corresponds to that point on the continuum. T at is, a behavioral approach
can eff ectively facilitate mastery of the content of a profession (knowing what); cognitive strategies are useful in teaching problem-solving
tactics where defi ned facts and rules are applied in unfamiliar situations
(knowing how); and constructivist strategies are especially suited to dealing with ill-defi ned problems through refl ection-in-action.
A second consideration depends upon the requirements of the task to
be learned. Based on the level of cognitive processing required, strategies
from diff erent theoretical perspectives may be needed. For example, tasks
requiring a low degree of processing (e.g., basic paired associations, discriminations, rote memorization) seem to be facilitated by strategies most
frequently associated with a behavioral outlook (e.g., stimulus-response,
contiguity of feedback/reinforcement). Tasks requiring an increased level
What might be most
ef ective for novice learners
encountering a complex
body of knowledge for
the f rst time, would not
be ef ective, ef iient or
stimulating for a learner
who is more familiar with
the content.
Volume 26, Number 2 / 2013 DOI: 10.1002/piq 61
of processing (e.g., classifi cations, rule or procedural executions) are primarily associated with strategies having a stronger cognitive emphasis
(e.g., schematic organization, analogical reasoning, algorithmic problem
solving). Tasks demanding high levels of processing (e.g., heuristic problem solving, personal selection and monitoring of cognitive strategies)
are frequently best learned with strategies advanced by the constructivist perspective (e.g., situated learning, cognitive apprenticeships, social
negotiation).
We believe that the critical question instructional designers must ask
is not “Which is the best theory?” but “Which theory is the most eff ective in fostering mastery of specifi c tasks by specifi c learners?” Prior to
strategy(ies) selection, consideration must be made of both the learners
and the task. An attempt is made in Figure 1 to depict these two continua
(learners’ level of knowledge and cognitive processing demands) and to
illustrate the degree to which strategies off ered by each of the theoretical
perspectives appear applicable. T e fi gure is useful in demonstrating: (a)
that the strategies promoted by the diff erent perspectives overlap in certain instances (i.e., one strategy
may be relevant for each of the diff erent perspectives, given the proper amount of prior knowledge
and the corresponding amount of cognitive processing), and (b) that strategies are concentrated along
diff erent points of the continua due to the unique
focus of each of the learning theories. T is means
that when integrating any strategies into the instructional design process, the nature of the learning task
(i.e., the level of cognitive processing required) and the profi ciency level
of the learners involved must both be considered before selecting one
approach over another. Depending on the demands of the task and where
the learners are in terms of the content to be delivered/discovered, diff erent strategies based on diff erent theories appear to be necessary. Powerful
frameworks for instruction have been developed by designers inspired by
each of these perspectives. In fact, successful instructional practices have
features that are supported by virtually all three perspectives (e.g., active
participation and interaction, practice and feedback).
For this reason, we have consciously chosen not to advocate one
theory over the others, but to stress instead the usefulness of being wellversed in each. T is is not to suggest that one should work without a theory, but rather that one must be able to intelligently choose, on the basis
of information gathered about the learners’ present level of competence
and the type of learning task, the appropriate methods for achieving optimal instructional outcomes in that situation.
As stated by Smith and Ragan (1993, p. viii): “Reasoned and validated
theoretical eclecticism has been a key strength of our fi eld because no
single theoretical base provides complete prescriptive principles for the
entire design process.” Some of the most crucial design tasks involve
being able to decide which strategy to use, for what content, for which