Primatological Data Collection Methods
Primatological methods were used to collect behavioral and socioecological data. Focal animal
scan sampling was utilized (Altmann 1974) to record primate behavior on the three groups of macaques
that inhabit the Padangtegal temple complex (see Fuentes and Gamerl 2005 for site description). However
we do not report the broader results of primate behavior studies from Padangtegal in this manuscript. At
the remaining ten temple sites, the study team split into groups of two or three observers to census each
macaque population and determine the number of groups at each temple site, and record the demography
(number of juveniles, infants, and adult males and adult females) of each group. These surveys were
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conducted repeatedly (approximately eight censuses at each temple site) to ensure that we obtained an
accurate population count. At each population we noted differences in physical morphologies such as
facial pigment and facial shapes, mohawk (tuft of hair on head) shape and facial hair patterns, and the
coloration of the pelage. These morphologies were recorded via a SONY digital camera. We employed ad
libitum sampling (Altmann 1974) to record macaque behavior. We noted macaque feeding, agonistic, and
affiliative behavior. We also recorded what foods the macaques consumed, this included naturally
occurring foods, crops that they raided, temple provisions for the Balinese and tourists, and offerings to
the gods. Provisions consisted on natural fruits and vegetables and processed foods (i.e. rice, taro, potato,
and corn chips, crackers, candy, and breads). The type of habitat at each of the 11 temple sites were
placed in broad categories and determined by the flora composition, topography, temperature, and annual
rainfall (Southwick 1976).
Ethnographic Data Collection Methodologies
We used ethnographic methods to collect the ethnoprimatological variables shown in Table 3.
Ethnographic methods consisted of questionnaires and interviews. Questionnaires were developed with
the University of Udayana staff to characterize the attitudes of local humans toward each macaque
population at the 11 temple sites (see Figure 2 for questions.). This included documenting the perceived
degree of crop raiding by the macaques, the frequency of crop raiding, and methods utilized to discourage
the macaques from this behavior. Questionnaires were also utilized to examine the local histories
regarding origins of the macaques, documenting local folklores associated with the macaques, and
determining the degree of food provisioning and habituation at each temple. Non-scripted informal
interviews were conducted to elucidate salient topics that the questionnaires did not or could not target
and allowed the interviewees to express themselves in their own terms, and at their own pace (Bernard
1994). Questionnaires and interviews were conducted in English, Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesia’s Lingua
Franca), and Bahasa Bali (the language of ethnic Balinese). The comfort level of the interviewee
determined the language the questionnaires were conducted in. In pastoral regions where English, and
Bahasa Indonesia are not frequently spoken, the University of Udayana staff conducted interviews with
informants in Bahasa Bali. At the Padangtegal temple site, questionnaires and interviews were conducted
from 1998-2002. However the results of these previous surveys are reported in this manuscript.