Pathophysiology
Cigarette smoking is the major risk factor and link identified for pancreatic cancer . Adenocarcinoma arising from the epithelial
Quitting Smoking
When a patient who smokes is encountered, it is a nursing responsibility to tactfully discuss the dangers of smoking, providing statistics on various disorders that occur so much more frequently in smokers than nonsmokers. Provide referral to community resources for quitting smoking and written materials with options on how to quit.
lial cells in the ducts is the most common form of pancreatic neoplasm. Tumor in the head of the pancreas obstructs biliary and pancreatic flow. Cancer in the body and tail of the pancreas usually remains asymptomatic until it is well advanced and invades the liver stomach , lymph nodes ,or posterior abdominal wall and nerves. Metastasis occurs early . the biliary obstruction usually causes liver failure , which in turn most often causes death.
Signs and Symptoms
Epigastric pain and weight loss are the main symptoms. Anorexia and vomiting may occur, and the patient may develop a dislike for red meat . When the disease is advanced , jaundice appears along with dark urine and clay-colored stools . There is glucose intoler-ance . Thrombophlebitis may cause leg or calf pain. There is a high incidence of clot formation with pancreatic cancer.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis is made by ultrasonography , imaging techniques , and fine-needle biopsy. Elevated carcinoembryonic antigen levels occur 80% to 90% of the time when pancreatic cancer is present. However , serum betahuman chorionic gonadotropin and carbohydrate antigen (CA) 72-4 are the strongest indicators of pancreatic cancer . The tumor markers CA 19-9 and CA 242 are used to monitor for potential spread or recurrence.
Treatment
Hight doses of opioid analgesics are usually required to keep the patient comfortable .Drug dependency should not be a concern. Treating or preventing malnutrition is a major goal. Enteral feedings may need to be given a catheter into the jejunum (jejunostomy) . TPN may be needed to provide adequate (see Chapter 3 and Chaper 28)
Surgical treatment is appropriate for resectable tumor in about 15% to 20% of patients but has not been highly successful in curing the disease. It provides a 5 year survival rate of less than 5%. Surgery is used mainly to relieve symptoms of obstructive jaundice ,severe pain or other complications . A Whipple procedure ,or radical pancreaticodenectomy ,may be done for cancer of the head of the pancreas. The head
Watch for Deep Vein Thrombosis
Because of the increased risk of clot formation in patients with pancreatic cancer, it is important to assess for signs and symptoms of deep vein thrombosis : pain , heat , or swelling in the calves. One leg may be swollen while the other is not. Measure the calf and ankle and compare to the other is leg. Check for signs of pulmonary embolus as well: restlessness , apprehension , chest pain , and shortness of breath . Should these signs and symptoms occur , report them to the physician immediately.
Of the pancreas , the gallbladder , the duodenum , part of the jejunum , and all or part of the stomach are removed . The spleen may also be removed. The remaining structures are anastomosed to the jejunum. Another option is total pancreatectomy . Because of the vast array of potential complications, the patient will usually go to the surgical critical care unit after surgery. Nursing care is the same as for any abdominal surgery , but careful observation for the many complications that can occur is essential. The patient will need enteral feedings, perhaps for life. A stent may be placed in the pancreatic duct to promote exit of pancreatic secretions and enzymes.
Cyberknife treatment , an image-guided radiosurgery, that helps target pancreatic tumor without disrupting other tissue is an option . There are several Cyberknife centers in the United States.
Gemcitabine (Gemzar) is the standard of care for treatment of nonresectable or metastatic tumors (Oettle et al ., 2007). It has been considerably more effective than 5-FU used alone . A combination of drugs has proven most effective , and other commonly used drugs include mitomycin (Mutamycin) , docetaxel (Taxotere), and cisplatin (Plationol).
Intensive external beam radiation therapy may offer pain relief , alleviate duct obstruction , and improve food absorption . Radioactive iodine seeds may be implanted in combination with systemic or intraarterial administration of floxuridine (FUDR).
Nursing Management
Nursing care is geared toward managing the severe pain these patients experience , and managing the side effects of treatment . Postoperatively , observe for hyperglycemia , hemorrhage , bowel obstruction or paralytic ileus , wound infection , and intra-abdominal abscess . Monitor the nasogastric tube for clear, colorless, bile-tinged drainage or frank blood with an increase in output as this may indicate leakage at an anastomosis site. Provide care for the postoperative patient with abdominal surgery (see Chapter 5) . Chapter 8 contains information on care of the cancer patient undergoing chemotherapy or radiation.
Community care
Nurse in extended care facilities should be alert to signs of jaundice in patients. Dark-colored urine is frequently an early sign of a problem. Cancer and gallstones are both more prevalent in the elderly, and when abdominal pain occurs these disorders must be considered.
Nurses in the community should promote immunization against hepatitis B virus in all persons at risk. Teenagers and adults should be counseled about the possibility of transmission of hepatitis B virus by sexual contact and advised of measures for protection. The hepatitis A vaccine should be recommended for those traveling in areas where this disorder is prevalent and for those at risk of liver problems. Education about ways to prevent contracting hepatitis C for teens and adults is important. All health care workers should be tested for the presence of hepatitis C virus. Home care nurses must be particularly alert to the possibility of liver or pancreatic problems due to medications the patient is taking. Encouraging regular laboratory work as recommended when the patient is taking a drug known to be potentially damaging to the liver is a nursing function.