30 while teachers between the ages of 41-50 reported the highest feelings of personal accomplishment. While many studies found that teaching experience was positively correlated with greater job satisfaction, number of years of experience has not been quite as reliable a predictor of intent to leave the profession. In the 1970s and 1980s, level of education attained did not seem to have any major bearing on predicting teacher job satisfaction. Secondary teachers seemed to have lower levels of emotional exhaustion than their elementary school counterparts (Mclntyre, 1983), and secondary special education teachers stayed an average of 1.6 fewer years than their elementary counterparts (Singer, 1992). Based on a 1997 review of intemational literature pertaining to the relationship between demographic factors on teacher stress, both Chen and Miller (1997) and Mclntyre (1983) described the following factors: (a) age and experience (the youngest and least experienced teachers experienced higher stress), (b) gender (female teachers were more satisfied and experienced less stress), and (c) marital status (unmarried teachers experienced higher stress). The salient points in this literature review in the area of gender were inconsistent with Hewitt’s (1993) findings, which noted that females experienced higher stress levels than males. The following is a description of employment factors that were related to job burnout from studies conducted in the 1970s and early 1980s. Teachers who perceived their class size was too large reported feelings of emotional exhaustion. Size of community (e.g., large city, medium city, small town, or mral area) had no effect on bumout. Teachers who reported experiencing role conflict and/or role ambiguity
31 reported more frequent and intense feelings of emotional exhaustion and negative feelings toward their students (Mclntyre, I983). A 1985 survey research study with 939 teacher participants from San Diego identified five main causes of burnout among those surveyed: feelings of being trapped in the profession, classroom discipline issues, isolation from peers and colleagues, lack of support for professional problems, and lack of support for personal problems. The top five items related to job dissatisfaction were: too much paperwork, poor public image of teachers, low salary, no participation in decision-making, and difficulties with classroom discipline (Hock, l985). In a 1993 literature review of the employment factors related to burnout in beginning teachers, Hewitt found that, nationwide, 50% of fledgling educators leave the field within their first 7 years. The following contributing factors were noted: student behavior, unmanageable workload, negative school climate, lack of clear expectations, lack of opportunities to participate in decision-making, low parent involvement, poor university preparation, low salary, and lack of colleague support. Chen and Miller (1997) reviewed international literature pertaining to the effects of employment factors on teacher stress. They found that the following employment factors were correlated with stress: time constraints, workload due to excessive paperwork, job demands, role conflict and ambiguity, inadequate salary, insufficient resources, large class size, lack of administrative support, insufficient opportunities to participate in decision-making, few opportunities to interact with colleagues, student behavior issues, lack of recognition, and lack of promotional opportunities.
32 Emotional factors are also related to burnout, as cited in the literature. When teachers perceive that they are less in control over their lives, they are more apt to exit the profession (Mclntyre, 1983). Hewitt (1993) emphasized the importance of teachers’ relationships with their students. Teachers desire positive interactions with and positive feedback from their students. Those who did not experience positive interactions were more apt to experience feelings of dissatisfaction. In addition, a teacher’s personality (i.e., a teacher’s self-concept) seemed to be related to success in the classroom. Theoretical framework. Ouyang and Paprock (2006) developed a framework for the prevention of teacher bumout on the basis of models that were developed by other researchers. Ouyang and Paprock explained that their reason for limiting the framework to issues of community and school factors, while excluding teacher characteristics (demographic variables, such as age, race, gender, etc.), was that teacher characteristics are static and not changeable. Therefore, they reasoned, the framework should only include issues that may be adjusted to help with teacher job satisfaction (see Table 2). Teacher shortages. The attrition of educators has become one of the most troubling issues facing policymakers. It is anticipated that over two million new teachers will be necessary within the next decade to provide adequate staffing in U.S. schools (Gerald & Hussar, 2003). Researchers have affirmed that the shortage is real and must be addressed (Voke, 2002). Based on Voke’s review of the literature, rising enrollment, increases in retirements, and large class sizes will cause an even greater strain on the teaching workforce in the future, which will lead to an increased shortage of teachers.
Table 2 33 Theoretical Framework for Preventing Teacher Burnout Community Factors Community conditions Community ties 0 Training for principals, colleagues, and family members to bolster support for teachers. 0 Provide teachers with essential materials and resources. 0 Offer day care services for children of teachers during the school day. Build partnerships with local businesses, other schools, and educational organizations. School Factors Collegiality School environment Stress reduction Professional development Career path altematives 0 Establish teacher support groups. Q Increase networking opportunities for teachers to communicate with teachers within the district and beyond. 0 Improve school security. 0 Create an atmosphere where all teachers feel supported and treated equally. Identify risk factors for stress and burnout and respond swiftly (e.g., stress-reduction strategies, support groups). 0 Create meaningful professional development that is integrated into the goals, mission, and vision of the school. I Encourage teachers to further their education. I Allow teachers to provide input into professional development, encourage teachers to conduct research, and attend conferences and/or symposiums. Offer opportunities within the school or district for teachers to gain different experiences by taking on different roles and participating in different types of experiences. Note. Adapted from Teacher Job Satisfaction and Retention: A Comparison Study Between the U.S. and China, by M. Ouyang and K. Paprock, 2006, February, Paper presented at the Academy ofHuman Resource Development International Conference, Columbus, OH. Copyright 2006 by the authors.
30 ในขณะที่ครูระหว่างอายุ 41-50 รายงานความรู้สึกประสบความสำเร็จส่วนบุคคลสูงสุด ในขณะที่หลายการศึกษาพบว่า สอนถูกบวก correlated กับความพึงพอใจงานมากขึ้น จำนวนปีของประสบการณ์ไม่ได้ค่อนข้างเป็นที่น่าเชื่อถือผู้ทายผลของความตั้งใจที่จะออกจากอาชีพ ในปี 1970 และทศวรรษที่ 1980 ระดับการศึกษาได้ไม่ดูเหมือนไม่ มีเรืองสำคัญใด ๆ ในการคาดการณ์ความพึงพอใจงานของครู รองครูดูเหมือนจะ มีระดับต่ำกว่าเกษียณอารมณ์กว่าปราบปรามประถม (Mclntyre, 1983), และครูการศึกษาพิเศษรองพักเฉลี่ย 1.6 ปีที่น้อยกว่าคู่ระดับประถมศึกษาของพวกเขา (นักร้อง 1992) ตามรีวิว 1997 intemational วรรณกรรมเกี่ยวกับความสัมพันธ์ระหว่างปัจจัยทางประชากรกับความเครียดของครู เฉิน และมิลเลอร์ (1997) และ Mclntyre (1983) อธิบายปัจจัยต่อไปนี้: อายุ (a) และประสบการณ์ (อายุน้อยที่สุด และมีประสบการณ์อย่างน้อยครูประสบการณ์สูงความเครียด), (b) เพศ (ครูหญิงมี satisfied เพิ่มเติม และมีความเครียดน้อยลง), และ (c) สถานภาพ (โสดครูประสบการณ์สูงความเครียด) ประเด็นในการทบทวนวรรณกรรมนี้ในพื้นที่ของเพศสอดคล้องกับของฮิววิท (1993) findings ซึ่งตั้งข้อสังเกตว่า หญิงมีประสบการณ์ระดับความเครียดสูงกว่าเพศชาย ต่อไปนี้เป็นคำอธิบายของงานปัจจัยที่เกี่ยวข้องกับงานถูกกระทำอย่างรุนแรงจากการศึกษาในทศวรรษ 1970 และต้นทศวรรษ 1980 ครูที่มองเห็นขนาดชั้นเรียนมีขนาดใหญ่เกินไปรายงานผ่านทางอารมณ์ความรู้สึก ขนาดของชุมชน (เช่น เมืองใหญ่ กลางเมือง เมือง หรือตั้ง mral) ไม่มีผลต่อ bumout ได้ ครูที่รายงานพบ conflict บทบาท/ บทบาทความคลุมเครือ 31 reported more frequent and intense feelings of emotional exhaustion and negative feelings toward their students (Mclntyre, I983). A 1985 survey research study with 939 teacher participants from San Diego identified five main causes of burnout among those surveyed: feelings of being trapped in the profession, classroom discipline issues, isolation from peers and colleagues, lack of support for professional problems, and lack of support for personal problems. The top five items related to job dissatisfaction were: too much paperwork, poor public image of teachers, low salary, no participation in decision-making, and difficulties with classroom discipline (Hock, l985). In a 1993 literature review of the employment factors related to burnout in beginning teachers, Hewitt found that, nationwide, 50% of fledgling educators leave the field within their first 7 years. The following contributing factors were noted: student behavior, unmanageable workload, negative school climate, lack of clear expectations, lack of opportunities to participate in decision-making, low parent involvement, poor university preparation, low salary, and lack of colleague support. Chen and Miller (1997) reviewed international literature pertaining to the effects of employment factors on teacher stress. They found that the following employment factors were correlated with stress: time constraints, workload due to excessive paperwork, job demands, role conflict and ambiguity, inadequate salary, insufficient resources, large class size, lack of administrative support, insufficient opportunities to participate in decision-making, few opportunities to interact with colleagues, student behavior issues, lack of recognition, and lack of promotional opportunities. 32 Emotional factors are also related to burnout, as cited in the literature. When teachers perceive that they are less in control over their lives, they are more apt to exit the profession (Mclntyre, 1983). Hewitt (1993) emphasized the importance of teachers’ relationships with their students. Teachers desire positive interactions with and positive feedback from their students. Those who did not experience positive interactions were more apt to experience feelings of dissatisfaction. In addition, a teacher’s personality (i.e., a teacher’s self-concept) seemed to be related to success in the classroom. Theoretical framework. Ouyang and Paprock (2006) developed a framework for the prevention of teacher bumout on the basis of models that were developed by other researchers. Ouyang and Paprock explained that their reason for limiting the framework to issues of community and school factors, while excluding teacher characteristics (demographic variables, such as age, race, gender, etc.), was that teacher characteristics are static and not changeable. Therefore, they reasoned, the framework should only include issues that may be adjusted to help with teacher job satisfaction (see Table 2). Teacher shortages. The attrition of educators has become one of the most troubling issues facing policymakers. It is anticipated that over two million new teachers will be necessary within the next decade to provide adequate staffing in U.S. schools (Gerald & Hussar, 2003). Researchers have affirmed that the shortage is real and must be addressed (Voke, 2002). Based on Voke’s review of the literature, rising enrollment, increases in retirements, and large class sizes will cause an even greater strain on the teaching workforce in the future, which will lead to an increased shortage of teachers.
Table 2 33 Theoretical Framework for Preventing Teacher Burnout Community Factors Community conditions Community ties 0 Training for principals, colleagues, and family members to bolster support for teachers. 0 Provide teachers with essential materials and resources. 0 Offer day care services for children of teachers during the school day. Build partnerships with local businesses, other schools, and educational organizations. School Factors Collegiality School environment Stress reduction Professional development Career path altematives 0 Establish teacher support groups. Q Increase networking opportunities for teachers to communicate with teachers within the district and beyond. 0 Improve school security. 0 Create an atmosphere where all teachers feel supported and treated equally. Identify risk factors for stress and burnout and respond swiftly (e.g., stress-reduction strategies, support groups). 0 Create meaningful professional development that is integrated into the goals, mission, and vision of the school. I Encourage teachers to further their education. I Allow teachers to provide input into professional development, encourage teachers to conduct research, and attend conferences and/or symposiums. Offer opportunities within the school or district for teachers to gain different experiences by taking on different roles and participating in different types of experiences. Note. Adapted from Teacher Job Satisfaction and Retention: A Comparison Study Between the U.S. and China, by M. Ouyang and K. Paprock, 2006, February, Paper presented at the Academy ofHuman Resource Development International Conference, Columbus, OH. Copyright 2006 by the authors.
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