Using a first difference model with a panel of 1,368 US municipalities over a ten-year period (1977–1986), Preston and Ichniowski (1991) provide one of the first comparative evidence on the effectiveness of TELs on municipal revenue. Their results indicate that overall property tax rate limits, when coupled with assessment limits, can reduce the growth of property taxes and total municipal revenue per capita by 45 percent and 13 percent, respectively. They also find that, surprisingly, the limitations on total revenue or expenditures have no statistically significant impact on the growth of total revenue or user charges; these limits, conversely, are associated with decreased intergovernmental revenue and increased nonproperty tax revenue (i.e., general revenue minus intergovernmental revenue, property taxes, and user charges).