Carole Pateman argues that “low” theories of citizenship have become
self-fulfilling. She is disturbed by the fact that much contemporary theory
is not “centered on the participation of ‘the people,’ or . . . the development
of politically relevant and necessary qualities in the ordinary individual.”
Further, she states that “in the contemporary theory of democracy it is the
participation of the minority elite that is crucial and the non-participation of
the apathetic ordinary man lacking in the feeling of political efficacy that is
regarded as the main bulwark against instability” (Pateman 1970, 104). She
suggests that the present institutional setting is hostile to citizen participation,
and creates feelings of apathy and low political efficacy. Therefore, the
development of a “democratic character” among the citizenry, which she
suggests is necessary for participation, is thwarted in the current system.
For whatever reason, as we noted earlier, political participation today is
generally down, at least when measured in terms of formal involvement, such
as voting or attending meetings. At the same time, trust in government has