New types of mobility called for new forms of social surveillance and control. All manner of means were devised to achieve this. Vagabonds were branded like sheep to make them visible. Workhouses and prisons sprang up to deal with the casualties of the new vagrancy laws developed in England and France and later exported to the American colonies. Gradually the disciplining role of the gaze became less mutual and more focused in the hands of the state. The control over mobility was nationalized and taken out of private hands. Whereas the only relevant scale for most people in medieval Europe was extremely local, the rise of the modern state gradually took power out of the hands of the local and created the nation-state. Central to this process was poor relief. Poor relief was the process whereby the local poor were seen to be the responsibility of the local community. In this way the mobility of the poor was managed. As European nation-states became established alongside correspondingly larger markets for goods and wage labor, landowners and local lords found their power to control mobility diminished. As labor became mobile on a national scale, so poor relief became a national issue. The scale of mobility changed for good. People could now move over a much greater range without obtaining anyone’s permission. As Torpey has noted, “What we now think of as ‘internal’ movement—a meaningless and anachronistic notion before the development of modern states and the state system—has come to mean movement within national or ‘nation-states.’ Historical evidence indicates clearly that, well into the nineteenth century, people routinely regarded as ‘foreign’ those from the next province every bit as much as those who came from other ‘countries.’