Brand salience is an important first step in building brand equity, but is usually
not sufficient in and of itself. For most customers in most situations, other consid-
erations, such as the meaning or image of the brand, also come into play. Creating
brand meaning involves establishing a brand image—what the brand is character-
ized by and should stand for in the minds of customers. Although a myriad of dif-
ferent types of brand associations are possible, brand meaning can broadly be dis-
tinguished in terms of functional, performance-related considerations versus
abstract, imagery-related considerations. Thus, brand meaning is made up of two
major categories of brand associations that exist in customers’ minds—related to
performance and imagery—with a set of specific subcategories within each. These
brand associations can be formed directly—from a customer’s own experiences and
9
contact with the brand—or indirectly—through the depiction of the brand in
advertising or by some other source of information (e.g., word-of-mouth).
We next describe the two main types of brand meaning and the subcategories
within each.
Brand Performance. The product itself is at the heart of brand equity, as it is the
primary influence of what consumers experience with a brand, what they hear
about a brand from others, and what the firm can tell customers about the brand
in their communications. Designing and delivering a product that fully satisfies
consumer needs and wants is a prerequisite for successful marketing, regardless of
whether the product is a tangible good, service, or organization. To create brand
loyalty and resonance, consumers’ experiences with the product must at least meet,
if not actually surpass, their expectations. Numerous studies have shown that high
quality brands tend to perform better financially, for example, yielding higher
returns on investment.
Brand performance relates to the ways in which the product or service attempts to
meet customers’ more functional needs. Thus, brand performance refers to the
intrinsic properties of the brand in terms of inherent product or service character-
istics. How well does the brand rate on objective assessments of quality? To what
extent does the brand satisfy the utilitarian, aesthetic, and economic needs and
wants of customers in its product or service category?
The specific performance attributes and benefits that constitute functionality will
vary widely by category. Nevertheless, there are five important types of attributes
and benefits that often underlie brand performance:
1. Primary characteristics and secondary features. Customers often hold beliefs about
the levels at which the primary characteristics of a product operate (e.g., low, medi-
um, high, or very high). They may also hold beliefs about special, perhaps even
patented, features or secondary elements of a product that complement these pri-
mary characteristics.
2. Product reliability, durability, and serviceability. As noted, customers can view the
performance of products or services in a broad manner. Reliability refers to the
consistency of performance over time and from purchase to purchase. Durability
refers to the expected economic life of the product. Serviceability refers to the ease
of servicing the product if it needs repair. Thus, perceptions of product perfor-
mance are impacted by factors such as the speed, accuracy, and care of product
delivery and installation; the promptness, courtesy, and helpfulness of customer
service and training; the quality of repair service and the time involved; and so on.
3. Service effectiveness, efficiency, and empathy. Customers often have performance-
related associations with the service interactions they have with brands. Along
those lines, service effectiveness refers to how completely the brand satisfies cus-
tomers’ service requirements. Service efficiency refers to the manner in which these
services are delivered in terms of speed, responsiveness, and so forth. Finally, service
empathy refers to the extent to which service providers are seen as trusting, caring,
and having the customer’s interests in mind.
10
4. Style and design. Consumers may have associations with a product that go
beyond its functional aspects to more aesthetic considerations such as its size,
shape, materials, and color. Thus, performance may also depend on sensory aspects
—how a product looks and feels and perhaps even what it sounds or smells like.
5. Price. Finally, the pricing policy for the brand can create associations in con-
sumers’ minds to the relevant price tier or level for the brand in the category, as
well as to its corresponding price volatility or variance (in terms of the frequency
or magnitude of discounts, etc.). In other words, the pricing strategy adopted for a
brand can dictate how consumers categorize the price of the brand (e.g., low,
medium, or high) and how firm or flexible that price is perceived to be (e.g., as
frequently or infrequently discounted).
Brand salience is an important first step in building brand equity, but is usuallynot sufficient in and of itself. For most customers in most situations, other consid-erations, such as the meaning or image of the brand, also come into play. Creatingbrand meaning involves establishing a brand image—what the brand is character-ized by and should stand for in the minds of customers. Although a myriad of dif-ferent types of brand associations are possible, brand meaning can broadly be dis-tinguished in terms of functional, performance-related considerations versusabstract, imagery-related considerations. Thus, brand meaning is made up of twomajor categories of brand associations that exist in customers’ minds—related toperformance and imagery—with a set of specific subcategories within each. Thesebrand associations can be formed directly—from a customer’s own experiences and9 contact with the brand—or indirectly—through the depiction of the brand inadvertising or by some other source of information (e.g., word-of-mouth).We next describe the two main types of brand meaning and the subcategorieswithin each.Brand Performance. The product itself is at the heart of brand equity, as it is theprimary influence of what consumers experience with a brand, what they hearabout a brand from others, and what the firm can tell customers about the brandin their communications. Designing and delivering a product that fully satisfiesconsumer needs and wants is a prerequisite for successful marketing, regardless ofwhether the product is a tangible good, service, or organization. To create brandloyalty and resonance, consumers’ experiences with the product must at least meet,if not actually surpass, their expectations. Numerous studies have shown that highquality brands tend to perform better financially, for example, yielding higherreturns on investment.Brand performance relates to the ways in which the product or service attempts tomeet customers’ more functional needs. Thus, brand performance refers to theintrinsic properties of the brand in terms of inherent product or service character-istics. How well does the brand rate on objective assessments of quality? To whatextent does the brand satisfy the utilitarian, aesthetic, and economic needs andwants of customers in its product or service category?The specific performance attributes and benefits that constitute functionality willvary widely by category. Nevertheless, there are five important types of attributesand benefits that often underlie brand performance:1. Primary characteristics and secondary features. Customers often hold beliefs aboutthe levels at which the primary characteristics of a product operate (e.g., low, medi-um, high, or very high). They may also hold beliefs about special, perhaps evenpatented, features or secondary elements of a product that complement these pri-mary characteristics.2. Product reliability, durability, and serviceability. As noted, customers can view theperformance of products or services in a broad manner. Reliability refers to theconsistency of performance over time and from purchase to purchase. Durabilityrefers to the expected economic life of the product. Serviceability refers to the easeof servicing the product if it needs repair. Thus, perceptions of product perfor-mance are impacted by factors such as the speed, accuracy, and care of productdelivery and installation; the promptness, courtesy, and helpfulness of customerservice and training; the quality of repair service and the time involved; and so on.3. Service effectiveness, efficiency, and empathy. Customers often have performance-related associations with the service interactions they have with brands. Alongthose lines, service effectiveness refers to how completely the brand satisfies cus-tomers’ service requirements. Service efficiency refers to the manner in which theseservices are delivered in terms of speed, responsiveness, and so forth. Finally, serviceempathy refers to the extent to which service providers are seen as trusting, caring,and having the customer’s interests in mind.10 4. Style and design. Consumers may have associations with a product that gobeyond its functional aspects to more aesthetic considerations such as its size,shape, materials, and color. Thus, performance may also depend on sensory aspects—how a product looks and feels and perhaps even what it sounds or smells like.
5. Price. Finally, the pricing policy for the brand can create associations in con-
sumers’ minds to the relevant price tier or level for the brand in the category, as
well as to its corresponding price volatility or variance (in terms of the frequency
or magnitude of discounts, etc.). In other words, the pricing strategy adopted for a
brand can dictate how consumers categorize the price of the brand (e.g., low,
medium, or high) and how firm or flexible that price is perceived to be (e.g., as
frequently or infrequently discounted).
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