INTRODUCTION
Upper gastrointestinal bleeding is a common medical condition that results in high patient morbidity and medical care costs. In a study from one large health maintenance organization in the United States, the annual incidence of hospitalization for acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding was approximately 100 per 100,000 adults; the incidence was twice as common in males as in females and increased with age [1]. Interestingly, the prognosis of patients with upper gastrointestinal bleeding appears to be improving, whether due to nonvariceal or variceal bleeding [2].
Upper gastrointestinal bleeding commonly presents with hematemesis (vomiting of blood or coffee-ground like material) and/or melena (black, tarry stools). In a small proportion of cases, upper gastrointestinal bleeding presents as hematochezia. In this situation, bleeding is typically brisk, and if accompanied by hemodynamic instability, represents a medical emergency. Nasogastric tube lavage may be used to confirm this clinical diagnosis, but it is often not necessary and may not be positive, even in the presence of an upper gastrointestinal tract lesion, if bleeding has ceased or arises beyond a closed pylorus. It is important to take a careful history and perform a careful physical examination since this will help localize the source of bleeding and, in turn, shed light on the possible etiology of bleeding. Although helpful, localization of the source of bleeding based upon stool color is not absolute since melena can be seen with proximal lower GI bleeding (especially slow bleeding in some patients), and hematochezia can be seen with massive upper GI bleeding as highlighted above [3-5]. (See "Approach to acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding in adults".)
This topic will review the major causes of bleeding from the upper gastrointestinal tract. The most common causes of upper gastrointestinal bleeding are ulcerative disease of the stomach and/or duodenum (often referred to as "peptic ulcer disease") and gastroesophageal varices. The approach to the diagnosis and management of patients with upper gastrointestinal bleeding, as well as other causes of upper gastrointestinal bleeding, such as angiodysplasia, neoplasms, and hemobilia are discussed separately. (See "Approach to acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding in adults" and "Overview of the treatment of bleeding peptic ulcers" and "Uncommon causes of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in adults" and "Mallory-Weiss syndrome".)
COMMON CAUSES OF UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL BLEEDING
Upper gastrointestinal bleeding can be classified into several broad categories based upon anatomic and pathophysiologic factors (table 1). Several endoscopic studies have described the most common causes [6-9]. The reported frequencies of the causes vary, possibly reflecting trends over time or differences in study design, populations, and definitions.
The most common causes of upper gastrointestinal bleeding include the following [6]: