understood. However, in other cases, new words and
meanings can be useful for marketing theories, since
knowledge of them may give a scientist admission to
the cognoscenti of a research community.
Fifth, theories that are consistent with current political
and social values are easier to market (Barnes
1977, Gould 1982). For example, a theory advocating
gender differences in cognitive abilities is difficult to
market in the current environment, even with impressive
empirical support (see Stanley and Benbow 1982).
In addition, since political and social values often determine
funding priorities, theories dealing with problems
for which ample research support is available are
more easily marketed to potential scientist adopters.
The sixth (and purposefully last) product attribute
is the preliminary empirical evidence that can be marshalled
to support a theory. Strong empirical support
is a highly desirable attribute that will enhance the
marketabilityo f a theory. However, strong empirical
evidence is neither necessary nor sufficient for the
successful dissemination of a theory. A number of
theories have been fairly widely adopted, despite poor
(or even no) initial empirical support (e.g., early atomic
theory or Freudian personality theory). Of course scientists
differ in the extent to which they are concerned
about the "fit" between data and theory; thus, the importance
of empirical support for a theory is likely to
vary for different scientists (see Mitroff and Kilmann
1978).
Test Marketing. Quite often, scientists test market
their theories before attempting a full-scale introduction
via journalp ublication.T heirm ajorg oal is to gauge
the reactions of potential adopters of the theory and
to identify and correct any glaring flaws before the
theory is introduced on a major scale. One way to do
this is by circulating working papers among colleagues
and friends in the "invisible college" (see Crane
1972). In addition, colloquia and seminars may be
presented to colleagues and students and their reactions
sought. At least three results are possible. First,
and least likely, the theory product may be judged to
be irretrievablfyl awed. This seldom occurs, since most
test market presentations are made to other scientists
who not only share the same world view as the inventor,
but are also social friends who respect the inventor.
Normally, such groups are reluctant to totally
reject the theory product. However, test market presentations
to less hospitable groups occasionally do
produce such an extreme rejection. Second, in equally
rare cases, the product may be viewed as a major accomplishment
with no serious problems and judged to
be ready for introduction.
Instead, the results of test marketing are likely to
suggest a variety of modifications to the theory. These
may involve adding or deleting constructs, clarifying
and redefining constructs, or changing the theoretical