Peano axioms
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In mathematical logic, the Peano axioms, also known as the Dedekind–Peano axioms or the Peano postulates, are a set of axioms for the natural numbers presented by the 19th century Italian mathematician Giuseppe Peano. These axioms have been used nearly unchanged in a number of metamathematical investigations, including research into fundamental questions of consistency and completeness of number theory.
The need for formalism in arithmetic was not well appreciated until the work of Hermann Grassmann, who showed in the 1860s that many facts in arithmetic could be derived from more basic facts about the successor operation and induction.[1] In 1881, Charles Sanders Peirce provided an axiomatization of natural-number arithmetic.[2] In 1888, Richard Dedekind proposed a collection of axioms about the numbers, and in 1889 Peano published a more precisely formulated version of them as a collection of axioms in his book, The principles of arithmetic presented by a new method (Latin: Arithmetices principia, nova methodo exposita).
The Peano axioms contain three types of statements. The first axiom asserts the existence of at least one member of the set "number". The next four are general statements about equality; in modern treatments these are often not taken as part of the Peano axioms, but rather as axioms of the "underlying logic".[3] The next three axioms are first-order statements about natural numbers expressing the fundamental properties of the successor operation. The ninth, final axiom is a second order statement of the principle of mathematical induction over the natural numbers. A weaker first-order system called Peano arithmetic is obtained by explicitly adding the addition and multiplication operation symbols and replacing the second-order induction axiom with a first-order axiom schema.
Contents [hide]
1 Formulation
2 Arithmetic
2.1 Addition
2.2 Multiplication
2.3 Inequalities
3 First-order theory of arithmetic
3.1 Equivalent axiomatizations
4 Models
4.1 Nonstandard models
4.2 Set-theoretic models
4.3 Interpretation in category theory
5 Consistency
6 See also
7 Footnotes
8 References
9 External links
Formulation[edit]
The set of natural numbers can be illustrated by the infinite chain of light wood domino pieces, their first one corresponding to zero, and each piece facing its top side towards its successor. However, the Peano axioms 1–8 are also fulfilled by the incontiguous structure consisting of both light and dark wood pieces.[citation needed] The induction axiom, 9, corresponds to the requirement that if the first light wood domino piece (0) is overthrown, then each piece will eventually fall ("domino effect"); this is satisfied only in the absence of the dark pieces.[citation needed]
When Peano formulated his axioms, the language of mathematical logic was in its infancy. The system of logical notation he created to present the axioms did not prove to be popular, although it was the genesis of the modern notation for set membership (∈, which comes from Peano's ε) and implication (⊃, which comes from Peano's reversed 'C'.) Peano maintained a clear distinction between mathematical and logical symbols, which was not yet common in mathematics; such a separation had first been introduced in the Begriffsschrift by Gottlob Frege, published in 1879.[4] Peano was unaware of Frege's work and independently recreated his logical apparatus based on the work of Boole and Schröder.[5]
The Peano axioms define the arithmetical properties of natural numbers, usually represented as a set N or mathbb{N}. The signature (a formal language's non-logical symbols) for the axioms includes a constant symbol 0 and a unary function symbol S.
The constant 0 is assumed to be a natural number:
0 is a natural number.
The next four axioms describe the equality relation. Since they are logically valid in first-order logic with equality, they are not considered to be part of "the Peano axioms" in modern treatments.[6]
For every natural number x, x = x. That is, equality is reflexive.
For all natural numbers x and y, if x = y, then y = x. That is, equality is symmetric.
For all natural numbers x, y and z, if x = y and y = z, then x = z. That is, equality is transitive.
For all a and b, if b is a natural number and a = b, then a is also a natural number. That is, the natural numbers are closed under equality.
The remaining axioms define the arithmetical properties of the natural numbers. The naturals are assumed to be closed under a single-valued "successor" function S.
For every natural number n, S(n) is a natural number.
Peano's original formulation of the axioms used 1 instead of 0 as the "first" natural number.[7] This choice is arbitrary, as axiom 1 does not endow the constant 0 with any additional properties. However, because 0 is the additive identity in arithmetic, most modern formulations of the Peano axioms start from 0. Axioms 1 and 6 define a unary representation of the natural numbers: the number 1 can be defined as S(0), 2 as S(S(0)) (which is also S(1)), and, in general, any natural number n as the result of n-fold application of S to 0, denoted as Sn(0). The next two axioms define the properties of this representation.
For all natural numbers m and n, m = n if and only if S(m) = S(n). That is, S is an injection.
For every natural number n, S(n) = 0 is false. That is, there is no natural number whose successor is 0.
Axioms 1, 6, 7 and 8 imply that the set of natural numbers contains the distinct elements 0, S(0), S(S(0)), and furthermore that {0, S(0), S(S(0)), …} ⊆ N. This shows that the set of natural numbers is infinite. However, to show that N = {0, S(0), S(S(0)), …}, it must be shown that N ⊆ {0, S(0), S(S(0)), …}; i.e., it must be shown that every natural number is included in {0, S(0), S(S(0)), …}. To do this however requires an additional axiom, which is sometimes called the axiom of induction. This axiom provides a method for reasoning about the set of all natural numbers.
If K is a set such that:
0 is in K, and
for every natural number n, if n is in K, then S(n) is in K,
then K contains every natural number.
The induction axiom is sometimes stated in the following form:
If φ is a unary predicate such that:
φ(0) is true, and
for every natural number n, if φ(n) is true, then φ(S(n)) is true,
then φ(n) is true for every natural number n.
In Peano's original formulation, the induction axiom is a second-order axiom. It is now common to replace this second-order principle with a weaker first-order induction scheme. There are important differences between the second-order and first-order formulations, as discussed in the section Models below.
Arithmetic[edit]
The Peano axioms can be augmented with the operations of addition and multiplication and the usual total (linear) ordering on N. The respective functions and relations are constructed in second-order logic, and are shown to be unique using the Peano axioms.
Addition[edit]
Addition is a function that maps two natural numbers (two elements of N) to another one. It is defined recursively as:
egin{align}
a + 0 &= a ,\
a + S (b) &= S (a + b).
end{align}
For example,
a + 1 = a + S(0) = S(a + 0) = S(a).
The structure (N, +) is a commutative semigroup with identity element 0. (N, +) is also a cancellative magma, and thus embeddable in a group. The smallest group embedding N is the integers.
Multiplication[edit]
Similarly, multiplication is a function mapping two natural numbers to another one. Given addition, it is defined recursively as:
egin{align}
a cdot 0 &= 0, \
a cdot S (b) &= a + (a cdot b).
end{align}
It is easy to see that setting b equal to 0 yields the multiplicative identity:
a · 1 = a · S(0) = a + (a · 0) = a + 0 = a
Moreover, multiplication distributes over addition:
a · (b + c) = (a · b) + (a · c).
Thus, (N, +, 0, ·, 1) is a commutative semiring.
Inequalities[edit]
The usual total order relation ≤ on natural numbers can be defined as follows, assuming 0 is a natural number:
For all a, b ∈ N, a ≤ b if and only if there exists some c ∈ N such that a + c = b.
This relation is stable under addition and multiplication: for a, b, c in N , if a ≤ b, then:
a + c ≤ b + c, and
a · c ≤ b · c.
Thus, the structure (N, +, ·, 1, 0, ≤) is an ordered semiring; because there is no natural number between 0 and 1, it is a discrete ordered semiring.
The axiom of induction is sometimes stated in the following strong form, making use of the ≤ order:
For any predicate φ, if
φ(0) is true, and
for every n, k ∈ N, if k ≤ n implies φ(k) is true, then φ(S(n)) is true,
then for every n ∈ N, φ(n) is true.
This form of the induction axiom is a simple consequence of the standard formulation, but is often better suited for reasoning about the ≤ order. For example, to show that the naturals are well-ordered—every nonempty subset of N has a least element—one can reason as follows. Let a nonempty X ⊆ N be given and assume X has no least element.
Because 0 is the least element of N, it must be that 0 ∉ X.
For any n ∈ N, suppose for every k ≤ n, k ∉ X. Then S(n) ∉ X, for otherwise it would be the least element of X.
Thus, by the strong induction principle, for every n ∈ N, n ∉ X. Thus, X ∩ N = ∅, which contradicts X being a nonempty subset of N. Thus X has a least element.
First-order theory of arithmetic[edit]
First-order theories are often better than second order theories for model- or proof theoretic analysis. All of the Peano axioms except the ninth axiom (the induction axiom) are statements in first-order logic. The arithmetical operations of addition and multiplication and the order relation can also be defined using first-order axioms. The second-order axiom of induction can be transformed into a weaker first-order induction schema.
First-order axiomatizations of Peano arithmetic have an important limita