The reasons for punishment listed above fall into two groups, those which are concerned with preventing future crimes, and those which are concerned with punishing already committed (or past) crimes (von Hirsch 1985). Those theories which see the goal of punishment as to prevent future crime are sometimes referred to as utilitarian (Hart 1968; Walker 1991) because they are derived from Utilitarian political-moral philosophy; or as consequentialist (Braithwaite and Pettit 1990), because they justify punish¬ment by its anticipated future consequences; or as reductivist (Cavadino and Dignan 1992) because their aim is the reduction of crime. These ideas will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 2. Past-oriented theories are usually known as retributivist, because their aim is to exact retribution from offenders for their crimes. Central to retributivist perspectives is the idea that the purpose of judicial punishment is to place moral blame on the offender for the offence s/he has committed, and that the future conduct of the offender or other members of his/her society is not a proper concern of punishment. Retributive theories will be discussed in Chapter 3.