I. Need for Studies on Teaching Schoolchildren with Intellectual Disability Class studies have been defined as follows: “Studies of actual classes for devising contrivances and improvements in conducting classes.”1 If a class study is viewed along a time axis, a progression from the preparation and review of curriculum guidance plan to conduct a class with class observation followed by holding a discussion at a review meeting after the class seems to be the most common pattern. The objective of class studies is to obtain information for class improvement. The information obtained is fed back to each teacher who participated in the class study. This raises the teacher’s skill at guidance and ability to understand the schoolchildren and hence leads to lesson improvement.
If classes are considered a purposeful activity conducted as part of the overall school life, however, the essence of class studies for schoolchildren with intellectual disability is not to obtain information for class improvement but to “provide daily classes and school life better suited to the children.” 2
In education for schoolchildren with intellectual disability, it can be said that the principles of guidance are learning through natural and necessary concrete experience with learning focused on practical and specific activities linked to daily life. To put it plainly, providing daily classes and school life better suited to the children suggests a need to validate whether the classes indeed improve the quality of school life and truly nurture life skills by questioning “whether there is practical and specific activity” and “whether the children are learning through natural and necessary concrete experience.”
II. Domestic Studies on Teaching Schoolchildren with Intellectual Disability Oota3 indicated that class studies have been conducted in the education of schoolchildren with intellectual disability by many schools but that few research papers have been written by academic and other investigators. The following reasons for this situation were given. 1) Investigators lack interest in the classes 2) Since the actual status of the children varies, it is difficult to apply knowledge obtained from one class to other classes (class study results lack generality and applicability)
The following presents an overview of the trends
ORIGINAL ARTICLE A study on teaching schoolchildren with intellectual disability
CHIKURINJI Takeshi* Hiroshima Prefectural Board of Education, Hiroshima, Japan
Abstract: The purpose of studies of classes for schoolchildren with intellectual disability is not only to improve such classes but also to enhance the quality of the children’s school life. To explore a new approach to studies of classes for schoolchildren with intellectual disability, first, previous relevant studies were reviewed. Next, the methodology used in the author’s study of the class for schoolchildren with intellectual disability that he taught was organized. Of previous related studies, “analytical studies” focused on the quantitative and qualitative assessments of classes by considering classes as a communication process and “Pedagogic studies” focused on the learning process in view of information on the psychology of learning or on the assessment involving the examination of the guidance plan before the class, class observation and a review of the class after class. It was considered difficult for teachers working for the school to conduct class studies by the same approach as those used by researchers. A methodology of class studies that is easy to employ in schools and to achieve improvements in classes was expected to be realized by devising and improving appropriate means of examining the guidance plan before the class and of reviewing the class after class. Key Words: Intellectual disability, Studies of classes, Analytical studies, Pedagogic studies of studies on teaching schoolchildren with intellectual disability.
1. Initiation of studies on teaching schoolchildren with intellectual disability Komiyama, the former principal of Seichyou School for the Handicapped,4 commented, “The education guidelines indicate only the contents and teaching objectives appropriate for the education of children with intellectual disability, with little reference to the teaching method,” because of the limitations of the original education guidelines, and remonstrated against perfunctory teaching in the name of merely providing life-unit learning. He raised the issue of the importance of analyzing classes and reflecting on analytical results, saying “It is necessary to reflect carefully on what, when, and how schoolchildren acquire experience, have it take root and help themselves, instead of falling back on a general life-unit plan.” He reiterated the importance of schoolchildren-centered classes and of studies of the classes themselves, although studies of educational contents and the teaching plan are also necessary. He stated that a class study should pursue “the true profile of children acquiring effective experience” and proposed that the progress of classes should be recorded from the following viewpoints over a long period. 1) What could children learn or not learn? 2) What changes appeared in their learning following what was done at the beginning of or during the class? 3) What was easy or difficult for them to learn? 4) How were the lesson contents maintained or how did they take root to exert a useful effect on the children’s activities?
Oonishi et al.5 & Murakami et al.6 investigated the teaching styles of teachers by class analysis.
2. Trends of studies on class studies Hirose7 systemized the trends of class studies in the in the education of schoolchildren with intellectual disability and pointed out the following. A. Practical and theoretical studies are necessary, and the pedagogic perspective is important. The pedagogic perspective involves the theoretical grounds that are used to clarify the educational direction (relational theory, including educational content theory, methodology, teleology, subject theory, and assessment theory). B. In a practical class study at school, one problem is the difficulty for teachers to carry out research activities (difficulty in securing time because of work conditions and lack of motivation toward the study). C. A small number of theoretical quantitative (analytical) and pedagogic studies have been reported, but assessments of the role of and methodology for theoretical studies on the education of schoolchildren with intellectual disability are insufficient. D. Very few reports on class studies appear among papers published in the Japanese Journal of Special Education (1980 – 1990). Studies on teaching schoolchildren with intellectual disability include a study on observation learning, 8 a study focused on the distance between teachers and students, 9 and a class analysis study in which the utterances and behaviors of teachers and children were analyzed categorically.10 E. At the Congress of the Japanese Association of Special Education, only the intellectual disability sector and the delicate health and weakness sector have made presentations on class studies.
He also pointed out the following issues that need to be resolved.
A. It should be understood that there is naturally a limit to the benefit of class analysis by means of quantifying teaching in which too much importance is placed on technical aspects. B. Emphasis should be placed on lesson creation. C. The subject principle and linguistic principle of merely having students recite answers should be improved. D. The joy of learning together should be valued highly. The meaning of tutorial counseling should be confirmed, and incautious tutorial counseling should be avoided. E. The pedagogic perspective should be given more consideration in class studies.
Oota11 reviewed prior reports on class studies of schoolchildren with intellectual disability and provided the following summary. Class studies by class analysis were started in the mid-1960s; teaching styles have been assessed; and studies using communication analysis began to be conducted in the 1980s. He pointed out the importance of studies on teaching performance.
3. Analytical studies Studies have been carried out in which analytical systems involving the classification and quantification of students’ utterances and behaviors during class according to categories devised from a specific point of view were deliberated.
Nakayama10 modified Flanders’s12 mutual analytical categories to prepare class analysis categories and conducted class analyses of schools and special classes for schoolchildren with intellectual disability using the class analysis categories. He reported that teacher-centered
classes were often the norm, where the number of teachers’ utterances was much higher than the very few voluntary utterances of the children. Another study of class analysis using similar class analysis categories was reported by Yanagimoto and Tsuzuki.13 These reports indicate that not only quantitative analysis but also qualitative analysis is necessary.
In a study aimed at qualitative analysis, Tsuge et al.14 developed an analytical system for analyzing not the frequency of categorized behaviors but the relationship between the progress of the class and the exchanges between teachers and students to clarify their interaction.
Musashi et al.15 conducted a continuous analysis of classes over two terms at a school for schoolchildren with intellectual disability using the analytical system described by Tsuge. They reported that there were patterns of interactions between teachers and students and indicated that the development of a new system to facilitate the monitoring of teaching activities and its use in subsequent classes should be addressed.
Nagoya16, 17 reported practical methods and recommended their application. To qual
I. ต้องศึกษาใน Schoolchildren สอนกับระดับความพิการทางปัญญา การศึกษากำหนดไว้ดังนี้: "ศึกษาของจริงเรียนสำหรับทบทวน contrivances และปรับปรุงในการจัดชั้นเรียน" 1 ถ้าเรียนศึกษา ดูแกนเวลา ความก้าวหน้าจากการจัดทำและทบทวนแผนการแนะนำหลักสูตรการเรียนกับชั้นสังเกตตาม ด้วยการอภิปรายเป็นการประชุมทบทวนหลังจากเรียนน่าจะ เป็นรูปแบบทั่ว วัตถุประสงค์ของการศึกษาระดับชั้นจะได้รับข้อมูลปรับปรุงการเรียน ข้อมูลที่ได้รับถูกป้อนไปแต่ละครูที่เข้าร่วมในการศึกษาระดับ นี้เพิ่มทักษะของครูในคำแนะนำและความสามารถในการเข้าใจ schoolchildren และจึง นำไปปรับปรุงบทเรียน ถ้าเรียนถือเป็นกิจกรรม purposeful การดำเนินการเป็นส่วนหนึ่งของโดยรวมโรงเรียนชีวิต ไร สาระสำคัญของการศึกษาคลาสำหรับ schoolchildren พิการทางปัญญาจะไม่ได้รับข้อมูลปรับปรุงคลาส แต่ จะ "ให้เรียนทุกวัน และโรงเรียนชีวิตที่เหมาะกับเด็ก" 2 ในศึกษา schoolchildren พิการทางปัญญา มันสามารถจะกล่าวว่า เป็นการเรียนหลักการคำแนะนำผ่านประสบการณ์คอนกรีตธรรมชาติ และจำเป็นกับการเรียนรู้ที่เน้นกิจกรรมการปฏิบัติ และการเชื่อมโยงกับชีวิตประจำวัน ใส่อุปมา ให้ชีวิตชั้นเรียนและโรงเรียนที่เหมาะกับเด็กทุกวันแนะนำจำเป็นต้องตรวจสอบ ว่าคลาจริงปรับปรุงคุณภาพของโรงเรียน และรักษาทักษะชีวิตอย่างแท้จริง โดยตั้งคำถาม "ว่า มีจริง และระบุกิจกรรม" และ "ไม่ ว่าเด็กจะเรียนผ่านประสบการณ์คอนกรีตธรรมชาติ และจำเป็น"การศึกษาสอน Schoolchildren กับ Oota3 พิการทางปัญญาครั้งที่สองในประเทศระบุระดับการศึกษาได้ดำเนินในการศึกษาของ schoolchildren พิการทางปัญญาโดยโรงเรียนมากแต่ว่ามีการเขียนรายงานการวิจัยน้อย โดยนักศึกษา และอื่น ๆ สาเหตุนี้สถานการณ์ต่อไปนี้ที่ได้รับ 1) สืบสวนขาดสนใจในชั้น 2) เนื่องจากสถานะที่แท้จริงของเด็กแตกต่างกันไป มันเป็นเรื่องยากเพื่อนำความรู้ที่ได้รับจากชั้นหนึ่งกับชั้นเรียนอื่น ๆ (ผลการศึกษาชั้นเรียนขาด generality และความเกี่ยวข้องของ)ต่อไปนี้แสดงภาพรวมของแนวโน้ม บทความต้นฉบับ A ศึกษาสอน schoolchildren พิการทางปัญญาCHIKURINJI ทาเคชิ * ฮิเขตการศึกษา ฮิโรชิมา ญี่ปุ่น Abstract: The purpose of studies of classes for schoolchildren with intellectual disability is not only to improve such classes but also to enhance the quality of the children’s school life. To explore a new approach to studies of classes for schoolchildren with intellectual disability, first, previous relevant studies were reviewed. Next, the methodology used in the author’s study of the class for schoolchildren with intellectual disability that he taught was organized. Of previous related studies, “analytical studies” focused on the quantitative and qualitative assessments of classes by considering classes as a communication process and “Pedagogic studies” focused on the learning process in view of information on the psychology of learning or on the assessment involving the examination of the guidance plan before the class, class observation and a review of the class after class. It was considered difficult for teachers working for the school to conduct class studies by the same approach as those used by researchers. A methodology of class studies that is easy to employ in schools and to achieve improvements in classes was expected to be realized by devising and improving appropriate means of examining the guidance plan before the class and of reviewing the class after class. Key Words: Intellectual disability, Studies of classes, Analytical studies, Pedagogic studies of studies on teaching schoolchildren with intellectual disability.1. เริ่มต้นของการศึกษาสอน schoolchildren พิการทางปัญญา Komiyama อดีตครูใหญ่ของโรงเรียน Seichyou อำนวย 4 ความ เห็น "แนวทางการศึกษาระบุเฉพาะเนื้อหาและวัตถุประสงค์ที่เหมาะสมสำหรับการศึกษาของเด็กพิการทางปัญญา มีการอ้างอิงน้อยวิธีสอน สอน" เนื่องจากข้อจำกัดของแนวทางการศึกษาเดิม และ remonstrated กับการสอนในห้องให้เรียนรู้ชีวิตหน่วยขอไปที เขายกประเด็นความสำคัญของการเรียนวิเคราะห์ และสะท้อนผลวิเคราะห์ พูด "จำเป็นต้องสะท้อนถึงการระมัดระวังเกี่ยวกับสิ่งที่ เวลา และ schoolchildren ได้รับประสบการณ์ จะใช้ราก และช่วยตัวเอง แทนที่จะล้มกลับวางแผนชีวิตหน่วยทั่วไป" เขาย้ำความสำคัญ ของแปลก schoolchildren เรียน และศึกษาเรียนด้วยตนเอง แม้ว่ายังจำเป็นต้องศึกษาเนื้อหาบทเรียนและแผนการสอนมี เขากล่าวว่า ระดับการศึกษาควรติดตาม "ประวัติจริงของเด็กได้รับประสบการณ์ที่มีประสิทธิภาพ" และเสนอว่า ความคืบหน้าของชั้นเรียนควรบันทึกจากมุมมองดังต่อไปนี้ระยะยาว 1) อะไรจะเด็กเรียน หรือไม่เรียน 2) เปลี่ยนแปลงปรากฏขึ้นในการเรียนรู้ต่อถึงสิ่งที่ทำที่จุดเริ่มต้นของ หรือ ตอนที่เรียนหรือไม่ 3) ง่าย หรือยากที่จะเรียนรู้ที่ 4 วิธีมีเนื้อหาบทเรียนรักษา หรือว่าพวกเขาจะรากจะมีผลประโยชน์ในกิจกรรมของเด็กOonishi et al.5 & Murakami et al.6 investigated the teaching styles of teachers by class analysis. 2. Trends of studies on class studies Hirose7 systemized the trends of class studies in the in the education of schoolchildren with intellectual disability and pointed out the following. A. Practical and theoretical studies are necessary, and the pedagogic perspective is important. The pedagogic perspective involves the theoretical grounds that are used to clarify the educational direction (relational theory, including educational content theory, methodology, teleology, subject theory, and assessment theory). B. In a practical class study at school, one problem is the difficulty for teachers to carry out research activities (difficulty in securing time because of work conditions and lack of motivation toward the study). C. A small number of theoretical quantitative (analytical) and pedagogic studies have been reported, but assessments of the role of and methodology for theoretical studies on the education of schoolchildren with intellectual disability are insufficient. D. Very few reports on class studies appear among papers published in the Japanese Journal of Special Education (1980 – 1990). Studies on teaching schoolchildren with intellectual disability include a study on observation learning, 8 a study focused on the distance between teachers and students, 9 and a class analysis study in which the utterances and behaviors of teachers and children were analyzed categorically.10 E. At the Congress of the Japanese Association of Special Education, only the intellectual disability sector and the delicate health and weakness sector have made presentations on class studies.He also pointed out the following issues that need to be resolved.A. It should be understood that there is naturally a limit to the benefit of class analysis by means of quantifying teaching in which too much importance is placed on technical aspects. B. Emphasis should be placed on lesson creation. C. The subject principle and linguistic principle of merely having students recite answers should be improved. D. The joy of learning together should be valued highly. The meaning of tutorial counseling should be confirmed, and incautious tutorial counseling should be avoided. E. The pedagogic perspective should be given more consideration in class studies.Oota11 reviewed prior reports on class studies of schoolchildren with intellectual disability and provided the following summary. Class studies by class analysis were started in the mid-1960s; teaching styles have been assessed; and studies using communication analysis began to be conducted in the 1980s. He pointed out the importance of studies on teaching performance. 3. Analytical studies Studies have been carried out in which analytical systems involving the classification and quantification of students’ utterances and behaviors during class according to categories devised from a specific point of view were deliberated. Nakayama10 modified Flanders’s12 mutual analytical categories to prepare class analysis categories and conducted class analyses of schools and special classes for schoolchildren with intellectual disability using the class analysis categories. He reported that teacher-centered classes were often the norm, where the number of teachers’ utterances was much higher than the very few voluntary utterances of the children. Another study of class analysis using similar class analysis categories was reported by Yanagimoto and Tsuzuki.13 These reports indicate that not only quantitative analysis but also qualitative analysis is necessary. In a study aimed at qualitative analysis, Tsuge et al.14 developed an analytical system for analyzing not the frequency of categorized behaviors but the relationship between the progress of the class and the exchanges between teachers and students to clarify their interaction. Musashi et al.15 conducted a continuous analysis of classes over two terms at a school for schoolchildren with intellectual disability using the analytical system described by Tsuge. They reported that there were patterns of interactions between teachers and students and indicated that the development of a new system to facilitate the monitoring of teaching activities and its use in subsequent classes should be addressed.Nagoya16, 17 reported practical methods and recommended their application. To qual
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