I
n October 2001, several letters containing Bacillus
anthracis spores were sent through the U.S. Postal
Service to recipients in government and private-sector
buildings. Consequently, 23 human inhalational or cutaneous
anthrax infections occurred. Five of the 11 inhalational
anthrax infections were fatal (1,2). As a result of this
intentional release of B. anthracis, several post offices,
mailrooms in government buildings, and private office
buildings were contaminated with B. anthracis spores.
During the initial response, frequent requests were made
for published materials about inactivating Bacillus spores.
However, no adequate single source of literature on this
subject was available. Because of the risk to humans, remediation
of anthrax-contaminated buildings and their contents
has been the focus both of scientific discussion and
commercial product marketing. A number of manufacturers
have developed equipment or materials that reportedly
kill B. anthracis spores. However, these manufacturers
have tested their products with laboratory tests that use
Bacillus species other than B. anthracis, and the efficacy of
some of these technologies relies on published literature.
An obvious concern is whether postremediation levels of
spores are safe; the summarized studies make no claim
about whether a safe level exists and what it might be.
We provide a summary of much of the available literature
on the inactivation of Bacillus spores that is relevant
to the inactivation of B. anthracis. We reviewed publications
from 1930 to 2002, and we have created a tabular
summary of those articles. Treatments or agents commonly
cited include heat, formaldehyde, hypochlorite solutions,
chlorine dioxide, and radiation. Methods regarding
inoculum size, concentration, and other variables are not
consistent between experiments, but each experiment provides
some specific information of value. Early studies
that lack quantitative data are not included. A number of
the cited studies address Bacillus species other than B.
anthracis. We include these for information, with the
caveat that surrogates do not always predict the behavior
of the target species. Furthermore, the results from laboratory
experiments do not specifically address questions
regarding the best methods for inactivating spores on different
materials such as mail, carpet, other porous objects,
food, or water. Transfer of these sporicidal methods from
the laboratory to a building has not yet been tested; however,
the known laboratory results are a logical place to
start when considering the decontamination of a building.
Decontamination is defined as the irreversible inactivation
of infectious agents so that an area is rendered safe.
However, decontamination may not eliminate bacterial
spores. Sterilization is the complete destruction or elimination
of microbial viability, including spores (3).
The experiments described provide a logical starting
point for future experiments and decontamination strategies
in the event of anthrax bioterrorism. Our intent is not
to provide a comparative evaluation or recommendations
for decontamination but rather to summarize the quantitative
published results and provide a useful reference.
In October 2001, several letters containing Bacillusanthracis spores were sent through the U.S. PostalService to recipients in government and private-sectorbuildings. Consequently, 23 human inhalational or cutaneousanthrax infections occurred. Five of the 11 inhalationalanthrax infections were fatal (1,2). As a result of thisintentional release of B. anthracis, several post offices,mailrooms in government buildings, and private officebuildings were contaminated with B. anthracis spores.During the initial response, frequent requests were madefor published materials about inactivating Bacillus spores.However, no adequate single source of literature on thissubject was available. Because of the risk to humans, remediationof anthrax-contaminated buildings and their contentshas been the focus both of scientific discussion andcommercial product marketing. A number of manufacturershave developed equipment or materials that reportedlykill B. anthracis spores. However, these manufacturershave tested their products with laboratory tests that useBacillus species other than B. anthracis, and the efficacy ofsome of these technologies relies on published literature.An obvious concern is whether postremediation levels ofspores are safe; the summarized studies make no claimabout whether a safe level exists and what it might be.We provide a summary of much of the available literatureon the inactivation of Bacillus spores that is relevantto the inactivation of B. anthracis. We reviewed publicationsfrom 1930 to 2002, and we have created a tabularsummary of those articles. Treatments or agents commonlycited include heat, formaldehyde, hypochlorite solutions,chlorine dioxide, and radiation. Methods regardinginoculum size, concentration, and other variables are notconsistent between experiments, but each experiment providessome specific information of value. Early studiesthat lack quantitative data are not included. A number ofthe cited studies address Bacillus species other than B.anthracis. We include these for information, with thecaveat that surrogates do not always predict the behaviorof the target species. Furthermore, the results from laboratoryexperiments do not specifically address questionsregarding the best methods for inactivating spores on differentmaterials such as mail, carpet, other porous objects,food, or water. Transfer of these sporicidal methods fromthe laboratory to a building has not yet been tested; however,the known laboratory results are a logical place tostart when considering the decontamination of a building.Decontamination is defined as the irreversible inactivationof infectious agents so that an area is rendered safe.However, decontamination may not eliminate bacterialspores. Sterilization is the complete destruction or eliminationof microbial viability, including spores (3).The experiments described provide a logical startingpoint for future experiments and decontamination strategies
in the event of anthrax bioterrorism. Our intent is not
to provide a comparative evaluation or recommendations
for decontamination but rather to summarize the quantitative
published results and provide a useful reference.
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