• assets and liabilities for each balance sheet presented are translated at the closing rate at the date of that balance sheet;
• income and expenses for each income statement are translated at average exchange rates (unless this average is not a
reasonable approximation of the cumulative effect of the rates prevailing on the transaction dates, in which case income
and expenses are translated at the dates of the transactions); and
• all resulting exchange differences are recognised as a separate component of other comprehensive income.