The second question deals with the concept of “active representation,” or the relationship between passive representation and policy outputs or outcomes. Again, it was Krislov who made the key contribution to shaping scholarly thought on this issue. He argued that the demographic composition of the bureaucracy provides only indirect evidence of the representative nature of bureaucracy. The social profile of any given bureaucrat—race, sex, education, and so forth—provides only a limited indication of that bureaucrat’s ability to advance the interests of these demographic groups. It is not enough, in other words, to find that women and minorities are roughly proportionally represented in the ranks of the civil service. Any serious claim that bureaucracy is a representative institution requires evidence that passive representation translates into active representation, that the more women and minorities join the civil service, the more the policy outputs of bureaucracies represent the broad interests of women and minorities.