Generally, the points of view noted above may be seen as the deficit and difference positions on language (see Edwards, 1979a; Hudson, 1980). The former, fuelled substantially by the writings of Bernstein on elaborated and restricted codes, is more and more giving way to the latter which, as we have seen, has the force of linguistic and anthropological evidence behind it. This does not mean that the deficit viewpoint is entirely without current pro- ponents. As examples, we might cite the work of Tough (1977) in the United Kingdom and Ramey and Campbell (1977, 1979) in the United States, who discuss the developmental (including linguistic) retardation among poor children supposedly deprived of early stimulation and learning experiences.