everyday physiological functioning than low care (the
absence of a potentially protective behavior), while higher
controlling behaviors within the context of a secure family
environment may be less salient for those from intact
families. Conversely, low paternal caring appeared to exert a
stronger influence on BP for young adults from intact
families. Previous studies have confirmed the association of
low parental care and poor offspring adjustment [6,56]. The
current findings indicate that family context is a critical
factor to consider in evaluating the physiological impact of
the father–child relationship.
There were several limitations to the analyses. Participants
were primarily Caucasian young adults, a cohort amid
a unique stage of maturation often characterized by personal
growth, identity development, and individuation from one's
parents [57]. Participants were pursuing a college education
in the southwestern United States, and results may not
generalize to other populations or ages. Reports of parental
caring and control were retrospective. Although there is
little evidence for inherent inaccuracy of retrospective
reports, a common concern is that current distress may bias
recall. Importantly, the divorce and intact groups did not
significantly differ in current anxiety or depressive
symptoms, and the results remained significant after
controlling for current anxiety or depressive symptoms.
Although the PBI is a widely used, well-validated measure
[45], findings reflect the participants' perceptions of their
childhood experiences with their fathers, and the objective
nature of parent–child relationships during childhood
cannot be verified. Finally, the cross-sectional nature of
the study precludes causal conclusions.
There are a number of contextual factors associated with
parental divorce that may be fruitful to consider in future
studies, including how offspring perceived the divorce and
changes in the father–child relationship before and after the
divorce. Additionally, previous studies suggest that two
subfactors—psychological control and behavioral control—
may more accurately conceptualize parental control than a
single factor [58,59]. Future research may benefit from a
more comprehensive approach toward assessing control
behaviors. Although we did not find evidence that maternal
behaviors influenced BP above and beyond the effects of
paternal behaviors, it is possible that maternal behavior
exerts more complex effects on child cardiovascular activity
in interaction with family contextual factors and paternal
behaviors. Lesser variability in maternal parenting behaviors
may have also precluded observable effects on child
outcomes. Study replication with a larger sample size will
be necessary for a more in-depth examination of potential
contextual moderators of maternal behaviors.
The vast majority of research on children's developmental
trajectories has focused on psychological outcomes, with
an emphasis on the mother–child relationship. The present
study provides unique insight into the long-term effects of
the father–child relationship, particularly within the context
of parental divorce, on young adults' physical health, via
associations with cardiovascular stress reactivity and ABP.
High levels of paternal control during childhood were
associated with greater SBP and DBP reactivity to an acute
stressful task and elevated daily SBP among young adults
from divorced families, potentially representing increased
future cardiovascular health risk. In contrast, a significant
relation between higher father caring and lower ambulatory
SBP emerged in participants from intact families and may
serve as an important protective factor. The findings suggest
that how the father–child bond affects young adults may be a
function of not only the nature of the relationship but also the
family context in which it unfolds. Paternal parenting
interventions may benefit from careful consideration of the
family structure and environment in which parenting
behaviors are enacted. In particular, focus on appropriate
levels of paternal controlling behaviors following divorce
may promote good cardiovascular health among children
affected by marital dissolution.