Nutritional insult during a critical period of gestation may leave a permanent “memory” throughout life, and some of the effects (e.g., insulin secretion and action) may be gender-specific (5). There is growing evidence that maternal nutritional status can alter the epigenetic state of the fetal genome and imprint gene expression. Epigenetic alterations (stable alterations of gene expression through covalent modifications of DNA and core histones) in early embryos may be carried forward to subsequent developmental stages (6). Two mechanisms mediating epigenetic effects are DNA methylation (occurring in 5′-positions of cytosine residues within CpG dinucleotides throughout the mammalian genome) and histone modification (acetylation and methylation) (35). CpG methylation can regulate gene expression by modulating the binding of methyl-sensitive DNA-binding proteins, thereby affecting regional chromatin conformation. Histone acetylation or methylation can alter the positioning of histone-DNA interactions and the affinity of histone binding to DNA, thereby affecting gene expression (35).
DNA methylation is catalyzed by DNA methyltransferases, with S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) as a methyl donor (35). SAM is synthesized from methionine and ATP by methionine adenosyltransferase. One-carbon unit metabolism, which depends on serine, glycine, and B vitamins (including folate, vitamin B-12, and vitamin B-6), plays an important role in regulating the availability of SAM (6). Thus, DNA methylation and histone modifications may be altered by the overall availability of amino acids and micronutrients. This notion is supported by several lines of evidence. First, a deficiency of amino acids results in marked reduction in genomic DNA methylation and aberrant expression of the normally silent paternal H19 allele (an imprinted gene) in cultured mouse embryos (36). Second, uteroplacental insufficiency causes hypomethylation of p53 gene in postnatal rat kidney (7), as well as global DNA hypomethylation and increased histone acetylation in postnatal rat liver (8). Third, maternal supplementation of methyl donors and cofactors (folic acid, vitamin B-12, choline, and betaine) increases CpG methylation at the Avy locus of agouti mice, and the methylation patterns are retained into adulthood (6). It remains to be determined whether maternal nutrition affects CpG methylation of the genes for NOS, GTP cyclohydrolase I (the rate-limiting enzyme for BH4 synthesis) and ODC, or alters histone modifications, in the uterus, placenta, as well as fetal and postnatal tissues (e.g., the vascular bed, adipose tissue, liver, kidney, skeletal muscle, or pancreas). Nevertheless, epigenetics may provide a molecular mechanism for the impact of maternal nutrition on fetal programming of postnatal disease susceptibility and on genomic imprinting (the parent-of-origin-dependent expression of a single allele of a gene)
Nutritional insult during a critical period of gestation may leave a permanent “memory” throughout life, and some of the effects (e.g., insulin secretion and action) may be gender-specific (5). There is growing evidence that maternal nutritional status can alter the epigenetic state of the fetal genome and imprint gene expression. Epigenetic alterations (stable alterations of gene expression through covalent modifications of DNA and core histones) in early embryos may be carried forward to subsequent developmental stages (6). Two mechanisms mediating epigenetic effects are DNA methylation (occurring in 5′-positions of cytosine residues within CpG dinucleotides throughout the mammalian genome) and histone modification (acetylation and methylation) (35). CpG methylation can regulate gene expression by modulating the binding of methyl-sensitive DNA-binding proteins, thereby affecting regional chromatin conformation. Histone acetylation or methylation can alter the positioning of histone-DNA interactions and the affinity of histone binding to DNA, thereby affecting gene expression (35).
DNA methylation is catalyzed by DNA methyltransferases, with S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) as a methyl donor (35). SAM is synthesized from methionine and ATP by methionine adenosyltransferase. One-carbon unit metabolism, which depends on serine, glycine, and B vitamins (including folate, vitamin B-12, and vitamin B-6), plays an important role in regulating the availability of SAM (6). Thus, DNA methylation and histone modifications may be altered by the overall availability of amino acids and micronutrients. This notion is supported by several lines of evidence. First, a deficiency of amino acids results in marked reduction in genomic DNA methylation and aberrant expression of the normally silent paternal H19 allele (an imprinted gene) in cultured mouse embryos (36). Second, uteroplacental insufficiency causes hypomethylation of p53 gene in postnatal rat kidney (7), as well as global DNA hypomethylation and increased histone acetylation in postnatal rat liver (8). Third, maternal supplementation of methyl donors and cofactors (folic acid, vitamin B-12, choline, and betaine) increases CpG methylation at the Avy locus of agouti mice, and the methylation patterns are retained into adulthood (6). It remains to be determined whether maternal nutrition affects CpG methylation of the genes for NOS, GTP cyclohydrolase I (the rate-limiting enzyme for BH4 synthesis) and ODC, or alters histone modifications, in the uterus, placenta, as well as fetal and postnatal tissues (e.g., the vascular bed, adipose tissue, liver, kidney, skeletal muscle, or pancreas). Nevertheless, epigenetics may provide a molecular mechanism for the impact of maternal nutrition on fetal programming of postnatal disease susceptibility and on genomic imprinting (the parent-of-origin-dependent expression of a single allele of a gene)
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