Such passive implementation results from insufficient funding to improve the quality of computer science education at the K-12 level in
several areas, including pedagogy and professional development for computer science teachers (Stephenson, 2009; Stephenson et al., 2005).
Aligned with the lack of practical implementation efforts, little attention has been paid to research on the effects of computer science
education on STEM learning outcomes. The few previous studies on computer science education at the K-12 level have addressed the
following three major issues: (a) contexts of computer science education; (b) underrepresentation of female and low-income students of
color in computer science education, and (c) challenges of promoting computer science education at the K-12 level. A literature review of
these three issues is provided below.