a thematic analysis within and across cases showed four common patterns in how discussion questions influenced the taking of a critical stance: raising consciousness on issues, identifying multiple perspectives, developing a critical stance, and applying the critical stance to writing. Finally, there were two dimensional factors promoting student engagement in the critical reading practice: external factors including course grades, course requirements, instructors, and group members; and internal factors such as culturally-mediated expectations, English proficiency, the purpose of learning English, and attitudes toward the critical reading practice. Student engagement and interaction, promoted through the eight factors, increased the amount of student
use of both spoken and written English in the classroom. Thus, the critical literacy approach can be expected to contribute to growth in English proficiencies.