University of Nebraska - Lincoln
DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln
Ecological and Environmental Anthropology
(University of Georgia)
Wildlife Damage Management, Internet Center for
1-1-2006
The Importance of Integrative Anthropology: A
Preliminary Investigation Employing
Primatological and Cultural Anthropological Data
CollectionMethods in Assessing Human-Monkey
Co-existence in Bali, Indonesia
James E. Loudon
University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, CO
Michaela E. Howells
Iowa State University, Ames, IA
Agustin Fuentes
University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN
Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmeea
Part of the Environmental Sciences Commons
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Wildlife Damage Management, Internet Center for at DigitalCommons@University of
Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Ecological and Environmental Anthropology (University of Georgia) by an authorized
administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln.
Loudon, James E.; Howells, Michaela E.; and Fuentes, Agustin, "The Importance of Integrative Anthropology: A Preliminary
Investigation Employing Primatological and Cultural Anthropological Data CollectionMethods in Assessing Human-Monkey Coexistence
in Bali, Indonesia" (2006). Ecological and Environmental Anthropology (University of Georgia). Paper 26.
http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmeea/26
Vol. 2, No. 1 Ecological and Environmental Anthropology 2006
2
Articles
The Importance of Integrative Anthropology: A Preliminary Investigation
Employing Primatological and Cultural Anthropological Data Collection
Methods in Assessing Human-Monkey Co-existence in Bali, Indonesia.
James E. Loudon1
, Michaela E. Howells,2
and Agustin Fuentes3
This study investigates the interplay between humans (Homo sapiens) and long-tailed macaques (Macaca
fascicularis) living in sympatric associations at 11 Hindu temple sites on the island of Bali, Indonesia.
Primatological methods were utilized to examine demography, habitat type, and record long-tailed
macaque feeding, and ranging behavior. Additionally, interviews and questionnaires were conducted to
ascertain Balinese individuals’ perspectives regarding the macaques, local folklores surrounding the
macaques, the perceived level of human-macaque overlap, and the degree of crop raiding by the
macaques. Ethnographic methods revealed that attitudes toward long-tailed macaques vary, suggesting
that human perceptions are determined by religious/local folklores and potential economic variables. In
contrast to reports of ubiquitous protection for the monkeys, informants revealed that macaques in some
locations are hunted, eaten, captured, and illegally sold to animal dealers, thus providing important
insights into our understanding of nonhuman primate conservation and the impact that each primate can
have on the other's behavior.
KEYWORDS: ethnoprimatology, anthropological methodology, long-tailed macaques, socioecology
INTRODUCTION
Throughout many areas of the world, human and nonhuman primates’ lives are interconnected
(Fuentes and Wolfe 2002). In these regions humans manipulate nonhuman primate environments directly
and indirectly. These modifications can range from general human destruction of landscapes, to human
and nonhuman primate commensalisms, to agricultural or pastoral habitat modification. Human and
nonhuman primate interconnections are influenced by complicated webs of economic, cultural, and
ecological components, which may be unique to specific regions. Many primatologists are aware of
human impacts on local ecologies and environments. However, many current socioecological models do
not fully take into consideration the impacts of human activities. Sponsel (1997) noted that biologists
consider humans as part of nature from an evolutionary sense, yet apart from nature from an ecological
sense. This argument can be extended to biological anthropologists, specifically primatologists. Placing
humans outside of socioecological models underplays their roles in predator-prey dynamics and can dilute
our understandings of how humans are agents of environmental degradation, resource depletion, habitat
destruction, and contributors to species extinctions (Sponsel 1997). If primatological inquiries are to
continue to make accurate assessments of the interplay between nonhuman primates and their
environments, human behavior should be considered an important socioecological variable.
Incorporating human impact into socioecological models suggests that primatologists need to
utilize cultural anthropological methodologies. Approaching primatological fieldwork with an
ethnographic perspective incorporates human cultural and economical elements and assesses the impact
of these elements on nonhuman primate behavior and demography (Cormier 2002). Because
anthropology is a holistic approach to studying ourselves (Dolhinow 2002), its insights are valuable, farreaching,
and can develop effective strategies for conservation by identifying the problems faced by
humans and their nonhuman primate counterparts. Utilizing ethnographic methods to understanding
1 Department of Anthropology, 233 UCB, University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309-0233
2 Department of Anthropology, 324 Curtiss Hall, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011-1050
3 Department of Anthropology, 648 Flanner Hall, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556-5611
Vol. 2, No. 1 Ecological and Environmental Anthropology 2006
3
human needs, hardships, culture, belief systems, behavior, and the interplay of these variables with local
ecologies, can provide important insights into nonhuman primate behavior. Thus, the answers provided
by ethnographic inquiries provide anthropologists (and in this case primatologists) with a toolkit to
appropriately assess conservation problems and human and nonhuman primate behavior. Studying freeranging
primates without exploring the role of anthropogenic factors can provide skewed results and
inappropriate conclusions regarding nonhuman primate behavior and develop conservation initiatives that
may falter because they do address the local peoples’ needs and beliefs.
Bali is one of approximately 13,000 islands in the Indonesia archipelago (Bater 1995). While the
large majority of Indonesians are Muslims, the Balinese practice a unique form of Hinduism. Questions
surrounding how and why the Balinese converted to Hinduism have not been satisfactorily answered.
Lansing (1983) suggests that this conversion was a “process” and not a specific event. Hinduism appears
to have been adopted voluntarily on a regional basis and subsequently spread throughout the island. No
evidence suggests that Bali was conquered or colonized by an outside power or empire and forced to
convert to Hinduism. Inscriptions in the 9-century A.D suggest that some indigenous Balinese kings
adopted Hinduism and Indic kinships systems and subsequently used Hindu cosmology to validate their
status as leaders and justify taxes (Lansing 1983).
Logistically, the island of Bali is an excellent locality to research the interplay between humans
and nonhuman primates. It is a small geographic region, consisting of a single polity with an
overwhelming majority of the population practicing the same religion (Fuentes et al., in press). The
island’s small size reduces the types of naturally occurring ecosystems and subsequently the number is
ecological variables that influence human and nonhuman primate behavior and the religious uniformity
practiced by the Balinese should result in similar cultural attitudes and perceptions regarding the
nonhuman primates throughout the island. Thus Bali’s small geographic size and religious uniformity
limits the number of extraneous ecological and anthropogenic factors.
Humans and long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) have lived in sympatric associations on
Bali for thousands of years (Wheatley 1999). Today these sympatric associations occur in forests where
humans and macaques compete for natural resources and at temple sites located throughout the island.
There are over 20,000 temples in Bali (Lansing 1983) and a single family may belong to several temples,
which include the house complex temple, kinship temples, a variety of water temples, a the village
temple, and regional temples (Lansing 1995). Local Balinese make offerings at temples (often in the form
of food) to the gods for good luck and to promote the welfare of their families (Lansing 1995). Local
village populations utilize temples for daily worship, rituals, and for other cultural festivities and
ceremonies. These ceremonies include important calendric events, funeral practices, deity worship, and
holidays associated with planting and harvesting regimes. The types of interactions that can be studied in
Bali range from the interplay between human and nonhuman primate behavior to the manner in which
humans and nonhuman primates partition their time and the ways in which they extract resources from
agricultural and forest environments (see Fuentes and Gamerl 2005; Stephenson et al. 2002). This project
utilized primatological and ethnographic methodologies to collect ecological and anthropogenic variables
that influence macaque population sizes, demography, and behavior. We placed these variables into two
broad categories, socioecological and ethnoprimatological variables. This manuscript is a preliminary
attempt to examine human attitudes toward long-tailed macaques, assess the types of interactions that
occur between humans and macaques, and examine how human behavior influences macaque behavior at
the 11 Balinese Hindu temple sites that were surveyed.
METHODS
Study Sites
The study focused on 11 Hindu temple sites (see Table 1 and Figure 1) used by the Balinese for
religious purposes that were also inhabited or frequented by long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis).
Vol. 2, No. 1 Ecological and Environ
University of Nebraska - LincolnDigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - LincolnEcological and Environmental Anthropology(University of Georgia)Wildlife Damage Management, Internet Center for1-1-2006The Importance of Integrative Anthropology: APreliminary Investigation EmployingPrimatological and Cultural Anthropological DataCollectionMethods in Assessing Human-MonkeyCo-existence in Bali, IndonesiaJames E. LoudonUniversity of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, COMichaela E. HowellsIowa State University, Ames, IAAgustin FuentesUniversity of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, INFollow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmeeaPart of the Environmental Sciences CommonsThis Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Wildlife Damage Management, Internet Center for at DigitalCommons@University ofNebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Ecological and Environmental Anthropology (University of Georgia) by an authorizedadministrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln.Loudon, James E.; Howells, Michaela E.; and Fuentes, Agustin, "The Importance of Integrative Anthropology: A PreliminaryInvestigation Employing Primatological and Cultural Anthropological Data CollectionMethods in Assessing Human-Monkey Coexistencein Bali, Indonesia" (2006). Ecological and Environmental Anthropology (University of Georgia). Paper 26.http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmeea/26Vol. 2, No. 1 Ecological and Environmental Anthropology 20062ArticlesThe Importance of Integrative Anthropology: A Preliminary InvestigationEmploying Primatological and Cultural Anthropological Data CollectionMethods in Assessing Human-Monkey Co-existence in Bali, Indonesia.James E. Loudon1, Michaela E. Howells,2 and Agustin Fuentes3This study investigates the interplay between humans (Homo sapiens) and long-tailed macaques (Macacafascicularis) living in sympatric associations at 11 Hindu temple sites on the island of Bali, Indonesia.Primatological methods were utilized to examine demography, habitat type, and record long-tailedmacaque feeding, and ranging behavior. Additionally, interviews and questionnaires were conducted toascertain Balinese individuals’ perspectives regarding the macaques, local folklores surrounding themacaques, the perceived level of human-macaque overlap, and the degree of crop raiding by themacaques. Ethnographic methods revealed that attitudes toward long-tailed macaques vary, suggestingthat human perceptions are determined by religious/local folklores and potential economic variables. Incontrast to reports of ubiquitous protection for the monkeys, informants revealed that macaques in somelocations are hunted, eaten, captured, and illegally sold to animal dealers, thus providing importantinsights into our understanding of nonhuman primate conservation and the impact that each primate canhave on the other's behavior.KEYWORDS: ethnoprimatology, anthropological methodology, long-tailed macaques, socioecologyINTRODUCTIONThroughout many areas of the world, human and nonhuman primates’ lives are interconnected(Fuentes and Wolfe 2002). In these regions humans manipulate nonhuman primate environments directlyand indirectly. These modifications can range from general human destruction of landscapes, to humanand nonhuman primate commensalisms, to agricultural or pastoral habitat modification. Human andnonhuman primate interconnections are influenced by complicated webs of economic, cultural, andecological components, which may be unique to specific regions. Many primatologists are aware ofhuman impacts on local ecologies and environments. However, many current socioecological models donot fully take into consideration the impacts of human activities. Sponsel (1997) noted that biologistsconsider humans as part of nature from an evolutionary sense, yet apart from nature from an ecologicalsense. This argument can be extended to biological anthropologists, specifically primatologists. Placinghumans outside of socioecological models underplays their roles in predator-prey dynamics and can diluteour understandings of how humans are agents of environmental degradation, resource depletion, habitatdestruction, and contributors to species extinctions (Sponsel 1997). If primatological inquiries are tocontinue to make accurate assessments of the interplay between nonhuman primates and their
environments, human behavior should be considered an important socioecological variable.
Incorporating human impact into socioecological models suggests that primatologists need to
utilize cultural anthropological methodologies. Approaching primatological fieldwork with an
ethnographic perspective incorporates human cultural and economical elements and assesses the impact
of these elements on nonhuman primate behavior and demography (Cormier 2002). Because
anthropology is a holistic approach to studying ourselves (Dolhinow 2002), its insights are valuable, farreaching,
and can develop effective strategies for conservation by identifying the problems faced by
humans and their nonhuman primate counterparts. Utilizing ethnographic methods to understanding
1 Department of Anthropology, 233 UCB, University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309-0233
2 Department of Anthropology, 324 Curtiss Hall, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011-1050
3 Department of Anthropology, 648 Flanner Hall, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556-5611
Vol. 2, No. 1 Ecological and Environmental Anthropology 2006
3
human needs, hardships, culture, belief systems, behavior, and the interplay of these variables with local
ecologies, can provide important insights into nonhuman primate behavior. Thus, the answers provided
by ethnographic inquiries provide anthropologists (and in this case primatologists) with a toolkit to
appropriately assess conservation problems and human and nonhuman primate behavior. Studying freeranging
primates without exploring the role of anthropogenic factors can provide skewed results and
inappropriate conclusions regarding nonhuman primate behavior and develop conservation initiatives that
may falter because they do address the local peoples’ needs and beliefs.
Bali is one of approximately 13,000 islands in the Indonesia archipelago (Bater 1995). While the
large majority of Indonesians are Muslims, the Balinese practice a unique form of Hinduism. Questions
surrounding how and why the Balinese converted to Hinduism have not been satisfactorily answered.
Lansing (1983) suggests that this conversion was a “process” and not a specific event. Hinduism appears
to have been adopted voluntarily on a regional basis and subsequently spread throughout the island. No
evidence suggests that Bali was conquered or colonized by an outside power or empire and forced to
convert to Hinduism. Inscriptions in the 9-century A.D suggest that some indigenous Balinese kings
adopted Hinduism and Indic kinships systems and subsequently used Hindu cosmology to validate their
status as leaders and justify taxes (Lansing 1983).
Logistically, the island of Bali is an excellent locality to research the interplay between humans
and nonhuman primates. It is a small geographic region, consisting of a single polity with an
overwhelming majority of the population practicing the same religion (Fuentes et al., in press). The
island’s small size reduces the types of naturally occurring ecosystems and subsequently the number is
ecological variables that influence human and nonhuman primate behavior and the religious uniformity
practiced by the Balinese should result in similar cultural attitudes and perceptions regarding the
nonhuman primates throughout the island. Thus Bali’s small geographic size and religious uniformity
limits the number of extraneous ecological and anthropogenic factors.
Humans and long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) have lived in sympatric associations on
Bali for thousands of years (Wheatley 1999). Today these sympatric associations occur in forests where
humans and macaques compete for natural resources and at temple sites located throughout the island.
There are over 20,000 temples in Bali (Lansing 1983) and a single family may belong to several temples,
which include the house complex temple, kinship temples, a variety of water temples, a the village
temple, and regional temples (Lansing 1995). Local Balinese make offerings at temples (often in the form
of food) to the gods for good luck and to promote the welfare of their families (Lansing 1995). Local
village populations utilize temples for daily worship, rituals, and for other cultural festivities and
ceremonies. These ceremonies include important calendric events, funeral practices, deity worship, and
holidays associated with planting and harvesting regimes. The types of interactions that can be studied in
Bali range from the interplay between human and nonhuman primate behavior to the manner in which
humans and nonhuman primates partition their time and the ways in which they extract resources from
agricultural and forest environments (see Fuentes and Gamerl 2005; Stephenson et al. 2002). This project
utilized primatological and ethnographic methodologies to collect ecological and anthropogenic variables
that influence macaque population sizes, demography, and behavior. We placed these variables into two
broad categories, socioecological and ethnoprimatological variables. This manuscript is a preliminary
attempt to examine human attitudes toward long-tailed macaques, assess the types of interactions that
occur between humans and macaques, and examine how human behavior influences macaque behavior at
the 11 Balinese Hindu temple sites that were surveyed.
METHODS
Study Sites
The study focused on 11 Hindu temple sites (see Table 1 and Figure 1) used by the Balinese for
religious purposes that were also inhabited or frequented by long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis).
Vol. 2, No. 1 Ecological and Environ
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