4. Discussion
Ethno-veterinary practices are discussed according to the following scheme: (i) Are there reports of similar procedures in neighboring regions? (ii) Are they shared with traditional Mid-Eastern human medicine? and (iii) Is there published scientific validation of these practices?
4.1. Is there a consensual ethno-veterinary use of medicinal plants?
The first evident finding is that most recipes encompass very widespread plants, such as olive tree, fig tree, oaks, lentisk (P. lentiscus), roman nettle (Urtica pilulifera), sticky fleabane (I. viscosa), tobacco leaves, but few rare or endangered species. Most medicinal plants are used as fodder or in water solutions, in accord with most recipes of traditional Arab medicine ( Said et al., 2002), with no use of tinctures, possibly because Islam prohibits the use of alcohol. The recipes described here consist of very simple, monospecies preparations, like recipes recorded elsewhere in the Mediterranean area (Guarrera et al., 2005 and Bullitta et al., 2007), but unlike the complex Ayurvedic and Chinese recipes reported by Wynn and Fougere (2007).
For the sake of conciseness, only the uses of extremely frequent Mediterranean plants that grow wild or are cropped, are discussed here. Olive oil is a prominent example. The use of olive oil as excipient in recipes against ectoparasites (Table 1), ubiquitous in Israel, exists also in Cyprus, Spain, and Algeria (Pieroni et al., 2006). The oil is used externally against scabies in Sardinia (Bullitta et al., 2007) and as beverage against poisonings (Table 2) in Cyprus, just as found in the present survey. Olive oil served to cure eye infection in Israel as it did in Greece (Pieroni et al., 2006), but not against bloating as in Sardinia (Bullitta et al., 2007).
P. lentiscus is ubiquitous under 500 m a.s.l. in the Mediterranean. Our finding that ingestion of P. lentiscus alleviates diarrhea and belly-ache in young goats ( Table 2) is in agreement with the use of decoction “to improve digestion” in sheep in Algeria ( Pieroni et al., 2006) and the treatment of bloating in Sardinia ( Bullitta et al., 2007). Scientific evidence has recently accumulated ( Table 6), endorsing the results of the present survey: consuming P. lentiscus foliage was associated with decreased nematode fecal egg count (FEC) in goat kids ( Landau et al., 2010) and lambs ( Manolaraki et al., 2009), as well as decreased Eimeria oocyst fecal counts in kids ( Markovics et al., 2012); and local Mamber goats self-medicate with P. lentiscus when challenged with gastro-intestinal nematodes ( Amit et al., 2013). However, decoctions of the plant are used against scabies and for curing wounds in Sardinia ( Bullitta et al., 2007) and salivated crushed leaves are used against eye infections in Cyprus ( Pieroni et al., 2006), but apparently not in Israel.
Table 6.
Traditional uses of P. lentiscus and associated scientific evidences.
Way of administration Ailment Subject Location Reference
External affections: ethno-veterinary practice
Fruit oils External application Scabies All livestock Sardinia Bullitta et al. (2007)
Whole leaves and stems Masticated with saliva and spit on eye Ophtalmitis Cattle Cyprus Pieroni et al. (2006)
Related scientific evidence
Leaf aqueous extract External Mycotic scalp infection Human Palestine Ali-Shtayeh et al. (1999)
Gastro-intestinal: ethno-veterinary practice
Whole leaves and twigs Kids tethered close toP. lentiscus Diarrhea, belly-ache Goat kids Israel Present study
Whole branches Used as brooms to clean-up water wells Israel Present study
Fruit and twig decoction Per os constipation All livestock Sardinia Bullitta et al. (2007)
Related scientific evidence
Whole leaves and twigs Eaten, as is Decreased Fecal Egg Count Goat kids Israel Landau et al. (2010)
Fruit powder Eaten, as is Decreased Fecal Egg Count Lambs Crete Manolaraki et al. (2009)
Whole leaves and twigs Eaten, as is Self-medication Young goats Israel Amit et al. (2013)
Leaf acetone:water extract In vitro Larval inhibition lambs Crete Manolaraki et al. (2009)
Leaf ethanol 70% extract In vitro Larval inhibition kids Israel Azaizeh et al. (2012)
Whole leaves and twigs Eaten, as is Decreased Fecal Oocyst Count Goat kids Israel Markovics et al. (2012)
Table options
Evergreen and deciduous oaks are frequent in hilly Mediterranean regions. Feeding oak foliage allegedly alleviated coccidiosis in Israel (Table 2), a possibility that is strengthened by its reported use against diarrhea with rabbits in Morocco (Pieroni et al., 2006) and as forage for weaning lambs in Sardinia (Bullitta et al., 2007).
The fig tree (Ficus carica) is also very common in Israel. The use of fig and related sycamore (Ficus sycomorus) sap against scabies ( Table 1) was not cited in other countries, even though its use against warts in humans in Italy ( Guarrera et al., 2005) and the Middle-East ( Said et al., 2002) can be connected. Fumigating fig-tree leaves against pneumonia in cattle was cited by Bullitta et al. (2007) but not found in Israel.
The use of garlic as anthelmintic reported for horses here (Table 2) was described before in Italy for calves (Viegi et al., 2003), poultry (Guarrera et al., 2005), and sheep (Bullitta et al., 2007); and for camels and cows in Saudi Arabia (Alyemeni et al., 2010). It was used to de-worm children in the past in Italy (Guarrera et al., 2005).
Sticky fleabane (I. viscosa) is a very common ruderal Mediterranean plant, used with olive oil against scabies ( Table 2) and for the treatment of wounds (skin, udder; Table 5). This last use exists also in Spain ( Pieroni et al., 2006). The manufacture of brooms from I. viscosa as flea-repellent in Basilicata (Italy; Guarrera et al., 2005) and the use of closerelative I. graveolens in Greece against lice in poultry strengthen our finding that I. viscosahas potential to serve as flea and lice repellent ( Table 1). Indeed, antimycotic ( Ali-Shtayeh et al., 1999), nematocidal ( Oka et al., 2001), and acaricidal ( Mansour et al., 2004) uses of I. viscosa are documented.
Tobacco leaves are used in Israel in preparations against scabies (Table 1) as it is in Italy (Viegi et al., 2003 and Bullitta et al., 2007), also against lice and fleas (Table 1) but not as remedy for eye infections, in contrast with the finding in Sardinia (Bullitta et al., 2007). The original use of tobacco smoke inhaled into sheep's nostrils to expel Oestrus ovis larvae (Table 1) was not reported elsewhere.
Barley is not only used as feed, or in excess (flushing) to stimulate reproductive performance as other grain sources (Table 4) but also fed to small ruminants before they are turned to pastures infected with Ferula communis or other toxic plants. This practice is not reported elsewhere, but it is consequent with the finding by Lemley et al. (2010) that dietary starch promotes liver P450 cytochrome hence helps detoxification in cattle. The use of barley grain decoctions served as beverage against bloating ( Table 2) is consequent with the use described by Viegi et al. (2003) in Italy.
Infusions of Artemisia absynthium, A. judaica, and A. herba-alba as remedies for gastro-intestinal malaise are consequent with Pieroni et al. (2006) – decoction used as anthelmintic for dogs and sheep in Algeria – and also cited by Viegi et al. (2003); however, the use of A. judaica to heal urinary disorder, and described in Sinai by Pieroni et al. (2006) did not emerge from our survey.
Macerations of Rue (Ruta chalepensis) and decoctions of Syrian Rue (Peganum harmala), two unrelated plants, albeit sharing a common name, which serve in preparations in Israel against scabies and to stimulate oestrus, are used in Cyprus to prevent microbial infections and in Sinai to improve digestion, respectively ( Pieroni et al., 2006). R. chalepensis is used as anthelmintic in donkeys ( Viegi et al., 2003) and humans in Italy ( Guarrera et al., 2005) and mosquito repellent ( Guarrera, 1999).
Recipes with Cistus spp. as wound healer are reported for Greece ( Pieroni et al., 2006) and Sardinia ( Bullitta et al., 2007) where the plant is also used against foot-rot. In spite of the extreme frequency of Cistus in the Carmel and Judean Hills, where foot-rot is endemic, no medicinal preparation was made of it.
Some plants in our survey belong to Saharo-Arab ecosystems. The uses of Citrullus colocynthis against scabies in camels ( Table 1) is found in Saudi Arabia. Artemisia spp. is used there as detoxicant after over-ingestion of Zygophyllum spp. coccineum ( Abbas et al., 2002), a use not found in the Israeli Negev desert.
Most examples above do not favor the hypothesis of homogeneous herbal veterinary medicine throughout the Mediterranean because the same species appear to be considered “medicinal” in Israel and in neighboring countries, but their uses may be different. However, they are some puzzling similarities between apparently unrelated Mediterranean cultures: mastitis was treated in Israel by ligation of the ear opposite to the infected half-udder, followed by drainage of the swollen ear by puncturing with hawthorn (Crataegus aronia) thorns. Hawthorn spines are specifically used to puncture swollen ears after snake-bites by Druze shepherds in upper Galilee ( Table 5). Bullitta et al. (2007)cites the same exact use of hawthorn spines “to cut into swollen parts” of the ear. The arrival in the 1st millennium BC of Phoenician traders, mainly from Tyre and Sidon in Sardinia might be a possible, though tenuous explanation for this puzzling sharing of practices.
4.2. Treatments of urolithiasis
Urolithiasis (cystitis, kidney stones) is frequent and can be lethal to rams and bucks. A number of beverages were proposed as treatments for afflicted animals: decoctions of Rosemarie, of Roman nettle, and of Cypress cones and leaves (Table 2). Cypress is cited by Viegi et al. (2003) for curing kidney diseases, but in spite of the extreme frequency of the other plant
4. สนทนาสัตว Ethno ปฏิบัติจะกล่าวถึงตามแผนงานต่อไปนี้: (i) มีรายงานของขั้นตอนที่คล้ายกันในพื้นที่ใกล้เคียงหรือไม่ (ii) พวกเขาจะใช้ร่วมกับยามนุษย์ดั้งเดิมกลางตะวันออก และ (iii) จะมีการตรวจสอบทางวิทยาศาสตร์เผยแพร่แนวทางปฏิบัติเหล่านี้4.1 การมีการใช้ ethno-สัตว consensual พืชสมุนไพรค้นหาที่แรกที่เห็นได้ชัดคือ ว่า สูตรส่วนใหญ่รอบพืชแพร่หลายมาก เช่นมะกอก มะเดื่อ โอ๊ค lentisk (P. lentiscus), โรมันเน็ทเทิล (Urtica pilulifera), fleabane เหนียว (I. viscosa), ใบยาสูบ แต่บางชนิดหายาก หรือใกล้สูญพันธุ์ พืชสมุนไพรส่วนใหญ่ใช้ เป็นอาหารสัตว์ หรือ ใช้โซลู ชั่นน้ำ ในสอดคล้องกับสูตรส่วนใหญ่ของอาหรับแพทย์ (กล่าวว่าร้อยเอ็ด al., 2002), กับไม่ใช้ tinctures อาจ เพราะอิสลามห้ามใช้แอลกอฮอล์ สูตรที่อธิบายไว้ที่นี่ประกอบด้วย monospecies เตรียมง่ายมาก สูตรบันทึกอื่น ๆ ในบริเวณเมดิเตอร์เรเนียน (Guarrera et al., 2005 และ Bullitta et al., 2007), แต่ต่าง จากดิคซับซ้อนและเค้กจีนรายงาน โดยวินน์และ Fougere (2007)เพื่อ conciseness เท่านั้นใช้ของเมดิเตอร์เรเนียนบ่อยมากที่ปลูกป่า หรือเป็น กล่าวถึงที่นี่ น้ำมันมะกอกเป็นตัวอย่างที่โดดเด่น ใช้น้ำมันมะกอกเป็น excipient ในสูตรกับ ectoparasites (ตาราง 1), ในอิสราเอล ยังอยู่ในไซปรัส สเปน และแอลจีเรีย (Pieroni et al., 2006) น้ำมันที่ใช้ภายนอกกับ scabies ใน Sardinia (Bullitta et al., 2007) และ เป็นเครื่องดื่มกับ poisonings (ตาราง 2) ในไซปรัส ก็พบในการสำรวจปัจจุบัน น้ำมันมะกอกเสิร์ฟแก้ตาอักเสบในอิสราเอลเป็น ประเทศกรีซ (Pieroni et al., 2006), แต่ไม่ กับ bloating ใน Sardinia (Bullitta et al., 2007)P. lentiscus a.s.l. แพร่หลายภายใต้ 500 เมตรในเมดิเตอร์เรเนียนอยู่ ค้นหาของเราว่า กิน P. lentiscus alleviates ท้องเสีย และปวดท้องในเด็กแพะ (ตาราง 2) ยังคงใช้ decoction "เพื่อปรับปรุงการย่อยอาหาร" แกะในแอลจีเรีย (Pieroni et al., 2006) และการรักษาของ bloating ใน Sardinia (Bullitta et al., 2007) หลักฐานทางวิทยาศาสตร์ล่าสุดได้สะสม (ตาราง 6), endorsing ผลของการสำรวจปัจจุบัน: ใช้ใบ P. lentiscus ไม่เกี่ยวข้องกับจำนวนไข่ fecal นีมาโทดาลดลง (FEC) ในแพะเด็ก (ม้า et al., 2010) และ lambs (Manolaraki et al., 2009), เป็น oocyst Eimeria ดีลดลงเป็น fecal นับในเด็ก (Markovics et al., 2012); และแพะ Mamber ท้องถิ่นตนเอง medicate กับ P. lentiscus เมื่อท้าทายกับ nematodes gastro ลำไส้ (Amit et al., 2013) อย่างไรก็ตาม decoctions ของพืชจะใช้ กับ scabies และบ่มแผลใน Sardinia (Bullitta et al., 2007) และใช้ใบ salivated บดกับตาติดเชื้อ ประเทศไซปรัส (Pieroni et al., 2006), แต่ไม่เห็นได้ชัด ในอิสราเอลตาราง 6 การใช้แบบดั้งเดิมของ P. lentiscus และหลักฐานทางวิทยาศาสตร์ที่เกี่ยวข้อง วิธีการดูแลโรคเรื่องตำแหน่งอ้างอิงAffections ภายนอก: ฝึก ethno-สัตว ผลไม้ตัวขับเคลื่อนแอพลิเคชันภายนอกทั้งหมด Scabies ปศุสัตว์ Sardinia Bullitta et al. (2007) ทั้งใบ และลำต้น Masticated น้ำลายและแบ่งบนตา Ophtalmitis วัวไซปรัส Pieroni et al. (2006)Related scientific evidence Leaf aqueous extract External Mycotic scalp infection Human Palestine Ali-Shtayeh et al. (1999)Gastro-intestinal: ethno-veterinary practice Whole leaves and twigs Kids tethered close toP. lentiscus Diarrhea, belly-ache Goat kids Israel Present study Whole branches Used as brooms to clean-up water wells Israel Present study Fruit and twig decoction Per os constipation All livestock Sardinia Bullitta et al. (2007)Related scientific evidence Whole leaves and twigs Eaten, as is Decreased Fecal Egg Count Goat kids Israel Landau et al. (2010) Fruit powder Eaten, as is Decreased Fecal Egg Count Lambs Crete Manolaraki et al. (2009) Whole leaves and twigs Eaten, as is Self-medication Young goats Israel Amit et al. (2013) Leaf acetone:water extract In vitro Larval inhibition lambs Crete Manolaraki et al. (2009) Leaf ethanol 70% extract In vitro Larval inhibition kids Israel Azaizeh et al. (2012) Whole leaves and twigs Eaten, as is Decreased Fecal Oocyst Count Goat kids Israel Markovics et al. (2012)Table optionsEvergreen and deciduous oaks are frequent in hilly Mediterranean regions. Feeding oak foliage allegedly alleviated coccidiosis in Israel (Table 2), a possibility that is strengthened by its reported use against diarrhea with rabbits in Morocco (Pieroni et al., 2006) and as forage for weaning lambs in Sardinia (Bullitta et al., 2007).The fig tree (Ficus carica) is also very common in Israel. The use of fig and related sycamore (Ficus sycomorus) sap against scabies ( Table 1) was not cited in other countries, even though its use against warts in humans in Italy ( Guarrera et al., 2005) and the Middle-East ( Said et al., 2002) can be connected. Fumigating fig-tree leaves against pneumonia in cattle was cited by Bullitta et al. (2007) but not found in Israel.The use of garlic as anthelmintic reported for horses here (Table 2) was described before in Italy for calves (Viegi et al., 2003), poultry (Guarrera et al., 2005), and sheep (Bullitta et al., 2007); and for camels and cows in Saudi Arabia (Alyemeni et al., 2010). It was used to de-worm children in the past in Italy (Guarrera et al., 2005).Sticky fleabane (I. viscosa) is a very common ruderal Mediterranean plant, used with olive oil against scabies ( Table 2) and for the treatment of wounds (skin, udder; Table 5). This last use exists also in Spain ( Pieroni et al., 2006). The manufacture of brooms from I. viscosa as flea-repellent in Basilicata (Italy; Guarrera et al., 2005) and the use of closerelative I. graveolens in Greece against lice in poultry strengthen our finding that I. viscosahas potential to serve as flea and lice repellent ( Table 1). Indeed, antimycotic ( Ali-Shtayeh et al., 1999), nematocidal ( Oka et al., 2001), and acaricidal ( Mansour et al., 2004) uses of I. viscosa are documented.Tobacco leaves are used in Israel in preparations against scabies (Table 1) as it is in Italy (Viegi et al., 2003 and Bullitta et al., 2007), also against lice and fleas (Table 1) but not as remedy for eye infections, in contrast with the finding in Sardinia (Bullitta et al., 2007). The original use of tobacco smoke inhaled into sheep's nostrils to expel Oestrus ovis larvae (Table 1) was not reported elsewhere.Barley is not only used as feed, or in excess (flushing) to stimulate reproductive performance as other grain sources (Table 4) but also fed to small ruminants before they are turned to pastures infected with Ferula communis or other toxic plants. This practice is not reported elsewhere, but it is consequent with the finding by Lemley et al. (2010) that dietary starch promotes liver P450 cytochrome hence helps detoxification in cattle. The use of barley grain decoctions served as beverage against bloating ( Table 2) is consequent with the use described by Viegi et al. (2003) in Italy.Infusions of Artemisia absynthium, A. judaica, and A. herba-alba as remedies for gastro-intestinal malaise are consequent with Pieroni et al. (2006) – decoction used as anthelmintic for dogs and sheep in Algeria – and also cited by Viegi et al. (2003); however, the use of A. judaica to heal urinary disorder, and described in Sinai by Pieroni et al. (2006) did not emerge from our survey.Macerations of Rue (Ruta chalepensis) and decoctions of Syrian Rue (Peganum harmala), two unrelated plants, albeit sharing a common name, which serve in preparations in Israel against scabies and to stimulate oestrus, are used in Cyprus to prevent microbial infections and in Sinai to improve digestion, respectively ( Pieroni et al., 2006). R. chalepensis is used as anthelmintic in donkeys ( Viegi et al., 2003) and humans in Italy ( Guarrera et al., 2005) and mosquito repellent ( Guarrera, 1999).Recipes with Cistus spp. as wound healer are reported for Greece ( Pieroni et al., 2006) and Sardinia ( Bullitta et al., 2007) where the plant is also used against foot-rot. In spite of the extreme frequency of Cistus in the Carmel and Judean Hills, where foot-rot is endemic, no medicinal preparation was made of it.
Some plants in our survey belong to Saharo-Arab ecosystems. The uses of Citrullus colocynthis against scabies in camels ( Table 1) is found in Saudi Arabia. Artemisia spp. is used there as detoxicant after over-ingestion of Zygophyllum spp. coccineum ( Abbas et al., 2002), a use not found in the Israeli Negev desert.
Most examples above do not favor the hypothesis of homogeneous herbal veterinary medicine throughout the Mediterranean because the same species appear to be considered “medicinal” in Israel and in neighboring countries, but their uses may be different. However, they are some puzzling similarities between apparently unrelated Mediterranean cultures: mastitis was treated in Israel by ligation of the ear opposite to the infected half-udder, followed by drainage of the swollen ear by puncturing with hawthorn (Crataegus aronia) thorns. Hawthorn spines are specifically used to puncture swollen ears after snake-bites by Druze shepherds in upper Galilee ( Table 5). Bullitta et al. (2007)cites the same exact use of hawthorn spines “to cut into swollen parts” of the ear. The arrival in the 1st millennium BC of Phoenician traders, mainly from Tyre and Sidon in Sardinia might be a possible, though tenuous explanation for this puzzling sharing of practices.
4.2. Treatments of urolithiasis
Urolithiasis (cystitis, kidney stones) is frequent and can be lethal to rams and bucks. A number of beverages were proposed as treatments for afflicted animals: decoctions of Rosemarie, of Roman nettle, and of Cypress cones and leaves (Table 2). Cypress is cited by Viegi et al. (2003) for curing kidney diseases, but in spite of the extreme frequency of the other plant
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