nature of classroom events. If, for example, the teacher explains something
in the target language, the language of that explanation is available to
be learned. It constitutes potential 'intake'. Similarly, all the things that get
said when errors are being corrected constitute potential intake, as do all
the things said in the target language by other learners.
2 'Emergent' content
If we define 'content' as the sum total of'what is taught' and 'what is available
to be learned', then it becomes clear that 'content' (potential intake) is
not predictable. It is, rather, something that emerges because of the interactive
nature of classroom events.
3 Materials may contribute in some way, but cannot determine CONTENT.
Again we find that the role of teaching materials is necessarily limited. Even
what learners learn is in an important way independent of die materials
used.
This notion of content needs further analysis (see Appendix 1) but here I
can simply indicate four main types of content:
a. The target language itself
b. Subject-matter content
This may include knowledge about language in general, about target
language culture, literature, etc. In die ESP (English for specific purposes)
context, subject-matter may be an important part of'what is taught', or it
may be simply die 'carrier' of all the language content.
c. Learning strategies
Part of the content of instruction (bodi diat which is 'taught' and diat
'available to be learned') may be learning strategies, diat is, ways of dealing
widi language input to turn it into intake, or means of generating input (see
Seliger, 1980). Aldiough die learning of learning strategies has not,
traditionally, been an explicit goal of language instruction, it has become,
recently, much more usual to give it emphasis, as in 'study skills' courses
for foreign students, for example. But all courses, not just diose labelled
'study skills', could well aim to help learners widi learning strategies, as an
obvious part of die management of learning. Learners diemselves, of
course, may well want to become better language learners. We shall return
to this issue under die heading 'learner-training' later.
d. Attitudes
It is well accepted diat one of die goals of school language instruction is to
improve die attitudes of speakers of different languages to one anodier.
However seldom this may be achieved, die development of positive intercultural
attitudes remains important, but it is not often discussed as part of
die content of instruction. Even where atutudes are not being explicitly
'taught', however, diey are almost certainly 'available to be learned' in any
language classroom, from die teacher and from everyone present. They
include atutudes to learning, of course, and not just language or intercultural
atutudes. To summarize, anyone involved in die management of
language learning has necessarily to deal widi atutudes as part of what
learners may learn.
This analysis of CONTENT has pointed to some of die many complexities
involved: enough, I imagine, to reinforce my contention diat not too much
can be expected of teaching materials.
Method Here diere are diree main issues that have to be attended to (decided, acted
upon, reviewed) in die management of language learning.