The economic “miracle” in postwar Japan and the East Asian newly industrialized countries (NICs—South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan) since the 1970s was fundamentally due to activist industrial, trade, and technology policies introduced by the state. The East Asian developmental states gave substantial well-designed export subsidies to industries they favored and granted tariff rebates that cheapened imported raw materials and machinery. States intervened to systematize economies through indicative (suggestive) planning—that is, planning via subsidies, grants, and tax inducements rather than state fiat. States regulated the entry of firms into key industries and restricted intercompany competition. Foreign investment was restricted and regulated. And states were actively involved in enhancing countries’ skill bases and technological capabilities through subsidies and public provision of education, training, and research and development (Amsden 2001; Chang 2002). Ha-Joon Chang has argued that state intervention, such as protecting infant industries, was used by most countries when they were in catch-up positions.