Moral Courage in Healthcare: Acting Ethically Even in the Presence of Risk
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Colonel John S. Murray, PhD, RN, USAF, NC
Abstract
Healthcare professionals often face complex ethical dilemmas in the workplace. Some professionals confront the ethical issues directly while others turn away. Moral courage helps individuals to address ethical issues and take action when doing the right thing is not easy. In this article the author defines moral courage, describes ongoing discussions related to moral courage, explains how to recognize moral courage, and offers strategies for developing and demonstrating moral courage when faced with ethical challenges
Citation: Murray, J.S., (Sept 30, 2010) "Moral Courage in Healthcare: Acting Ethically Even in the Presence of Risk" OJIN: The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing Vol. 15, No. 3, Manuscript 2.
DOI: 10.3912/OJIN.Vol15No03Man02
Key words: Moral courage, ethics, ethical dilemmas, developing moral courage, Code of Ethics for Nurses, Nursing’s Social Policy Statement, cultural diversity
"Stand up for what is right even if you stand alone." Anonymous
There are few articles addressing moral courage in today’s healthcare literature. Examples of unethical behaviors are seen today in academia, politics, sports, entertainment, banking, and the legal system (Gallup, 2009; Kidder, 2005; Murray, 2007a; 2007b; Zangaro, Yager & Proulx, 2009). Healthcare professionals working in clinical practice, education, research, and administration are not immune to these unethical behaviors. They face ethical dilemmas on a regular basis. Shortages in the numbers of clinicians to deliver patient care, inadequate staffing levels, cost containment measures, consolidation of healthcare organizations, and ineffective leadership have resulted in the escalation of ethical dilemmas nurses face today in healthcare environments (Clancy, 2003; Einarsen, Aasland & Skogstad, 2007; Murray, 2008; 2007a; Zangaro et al., 2009). How individuals respond to these ethical dilemmas depends on their previous experiences with unethical behavior, their individual personality traits, and their ethical values, as well as their knowledge of ethical principles (Clancy, 2003). Moral courage is needed to confront unethical behaviors. The following exemplar demonstrates moral courage in clinical practice.
Emily was a novice nurse employed at an academic medical center. Her peers respected her and described her as an attentive and meticulous nurse with strong work values. Over time Emily noted a behavior in the work setting that concerned her and conflicted with her ethical principles. She had observed her supervisor falsifying training records of nurses still on orientation so that these new nurses could begin earlier to work independently, thus improving staffing levels. When Emily brought this behavior to the attention of the more senior nurses on the unit, they explained that they experienced retaliation if they even mentioned this misconduct. After much deliberation, Emily felt that she had an ethical responsibility to take action and bring this matter to the attention of the hospital administration. As soon as she did this, her supervisor began to berate her in staff meetings, change her work schedule unfairly and without notice, withhold needed information, set unreasonable deadlines, and prevent her opportunities for professional advancement. Recognizing that nurses have an obligation to always demonstrate the highest professional and ethical standards, Emily sought guidance from the medical center’s nurse ethicist. This guidance and support helped her to stand firm and stay resolute in her determination to do what was right.
There are few articles addressing moral courage in today’s healthcare literature. What is available indicates a lack of moral courage on the part of healthcare professionals when they are faced with ethical challenges (Aultman, 2008). Sekerka and Bagozzi (2007) have encouraged healthcare organizations to promote ‘ethical fitness’ so as to increase providers’ level of moral courage in daily organizational activities. Healthcare agencies and professional organizations need to articulate, encourage adherence to, and act on shared values as they provide an environment in which moral behaviors are welcomed and expected. The challenge in today’s constantly changing healthcare environment is to be certain that professionals understand what moral courage is, why it is important for all settings in which they practice, teach, research, and/or lead, and how moral courage can be demonstrated when ethical challenges are confronted (Purtilo, 2000). In this article the author defines moral courage, describes ongoing discussions related to moral courage, explains how to recognize moral courage, and offers strategies for developing and demonstrating moral courage when faced with ethical challenges.
Moral Courage Defined
Scholars have debated the various meanings of ‘courage’ over the centuries. Ancient Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, frequently used the term in reference to character on the battlefield. Plato and Aristotle discussed courage as a trait set aside for situations where individuals feared death. Aristotle specifically discussed courage in the context of being able to wage war while being mindful of the possibility of injury or death. To Aristotle, bravery was a virtue that enabled Greek soldiers to respond appropriately to the fear of the battle (Day, 2007; Lachman, 2007; Miller, 2005).
Morally courageous professionals persevere to stand up for what is right even when it means they may do so alone. While the ancient Greeks described courage as a desired response to physical danger, contemporary scholars more frequently address courage as the commitment to stand up for/act upon one’s ethical beliefs – an essential virtue for all healthcare professionals today (Clancy, 2003; Day, 2007; Kidder, 2005; Lachman, 2009; 2007a; Purtilo, 2000). This type of courage, called moral courage, is vital to the willingness of individuals to take hold of, and fully support, ethical responsibilities essential to professional values (Day, 2007). Moral courage is a highly esteemed trait displayed by individuals, who, despite adversity and personal risk, decide to act upon their ethical values to help others during difficult ethical dilemmas. These individuals strive to do the right thing, even when others chose a less ethical behavior, which may include taking no action at all (Lachman, 2009; 2007a; 2007b; Sekerka & Bagozzi, 2007). Morally courageous professionals persevere to stand up for what is right even when it means they may do so alone. The ultimate goal of morally courageous behavior is to put ethical principles into action and protect ethical values perceived to be at risk (Kidder, 2005; Purtilo, 2000; Secretan, 2009: SG Solutions, 2009).
Moral courage is considered to be the pinnacle of ethical behavior; it requires a steadfast commitment to fundamental ethical principles despite potential risks, such as threats to reputation, shame, emotional anxiety, isolation from colleagues, retaliation, and loss of employment. Morally courageous individuals are prepared to face tough decisions and confront the uncertainties associated with their resolve to do the right thing despite the consequences they may face (Clancy, 2003; Kidder, 2005; Lachman, 2007a; 2007c; Miller, 2005; Peake, 2006).
Discussions Related to Moral Courage
While the Code of Ethics for Nurses encourages nurses to remain consistent with their own personal values, it also emphasizes the need for open discussion of differing ethical principles... It is important not to confuse moral courage with moral arrogance and moral certitude (moral certainty). Moral arrogance involves truly believing that one’s own moral stand or judgment is the only correct option regarding a controversial issue, even though others consider differing moral decisions or judgments to be morally acceptable (Gert, Culver, & Clouser, 2006). Morally arrogant individuals are condescending, dismissive of the thoughts of others, and primarily concerned with self (Baylis, 2007). Moral certitude (or certainty) is the term used to describe a very firm belief based on an inner conviction. Morally certain individuals believe that they are correct in their beliefs to the extent that they have no reservations whatsoever about the rightness of their beliefs. Moral arrogance and moral certitude inhibit the thoughtful assessment needed in ethical practice. These attitudes bring with them the risk of suppressing open dialogue and forthright deliberation regarding ethical issues. In contrast, professional and ethical principles, rather than personal preconceptions or unwavering preferences, should serve as the foundation of ethical decision making (Vaiani, 2009). The American Nurses Association (ANA) Code of Ethics for Nurses (2001) contains a common, shared set of ethical principles to guide nurses’ professional behavior. All nurses are encouraged to hold to these principles in their practice of professional nursing. While the Code of Ethics for Nurses encourages nurses to remain consistent with their own personal values, it also emphasizes the need for open discussion of differing ethical principles in a manner that does not consistently place one principle above another, thus avoiding the dangers of moral arrogance and moral certitude.
There is also much debate over the difference between public and private morals. The Code of Ethics for Nurses (ANA, 2001) addresses the distinction between public and private morals. Provision Five of the Code discusses wholeness of character whereby, in the course of becoming a professional nurse, nurses accept the values of the profession integrating them with their personal value system (ANA, 2001). Additionally, Nursing’s Social Policy Statement provides guidance regarding nursing’