A key characteristic of “information-as-knowledge” is that it is intangible: one cannot touch it or measure it in any direct way. Knowledge, belief, and opinion are personal, subjective, and conceptual. Therefore, to communicate them, they haveto be expressed, described, or represented in some physical way, as a signal, text, or communication. Any such expression, description, or representation would be “information-as-thing.” We shall discuss implications of this below. Some theorists have objected to the attributive use of the term “information” to denote a thing in the third sense above. Wiener asserted that “information is information, not material nor energy.“ Machlup (1983, p. 642), who restricted information to the context of communication, was dismissive of this third sense of information: “The noun ‘information’ has essentially two traditional meanings… any meanings other than (1) the telling of something or (2) that which is being told are either analogies and metaphors or concoctions resulting from the condoned appropriation of a word that had not been meant by earlier users.” Fairthorne(1954) objected scornfully to information as “information is an attribute of the receiver’s, nor some omniscient observer’s nor of the signal itself.”