This study referenced the MPAS composed by Hong et al.
(2012). This scale comprised 11 items; three factors were included to reasonably assess the following three psychological traits concerning smartphone addiction: (1) time management and related problems (5 items), with items such as ‘‘When using a mobile phone, you assure yourself that you will stop using it in just a minute’’; (2) academic problems and subsequent influences (3 items), with items such as ‘‘My academic performance has been affected by my spending excessive amount of time using my mobile phone’’; and (3) substitute satisfaction (3 items), with items such as ‘‘Before I finish a certain task, I check my mobile phone to see whether I have missed any calls or text messages. A six-point Likert