Two items assessed whether a participant witnessed violence in the 12 months prior to 9th grade (e.g., How often have you
seen someone commit a violent crime where a person was hurt and How often have you seen someone get shot, stabbed, or beaten up; r ¼ .52). Response options ranged from 1 (0 times) to 5 (4 or more times). Higher scores indicating more exposure to
community violence.