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Speaking of differences between Canadians and their US counterparts, McGill professor Nancy Adler offers the following observations: Compared to Americans, Canadians tend to understate their strengths and perhaps overstate their weaknesses. They do not usually claim to be the best at something. Canadians strongly believe in collegiality. For example, Canada is one of the leaders in creating middle-country
initiatives where a group of countries in the world tries to get something done (instead of trying to go it alone). Canadians tend to be more formal than Americans – titles and family names are important. Canadians are generally more polite and less confrontational than their American counterparts. Canadians are also less explicitly and publicly religious. Finally, Canadians believe in more collective responsibility across society in such areas as education and health care. All of this is not to say that overlaps do not occur; obviously they do. However, assuming that Americans and Canadians live identical life styles or share identical values can only lead to lost opportunities for global managers.
In summary, some might argue that in making comparisons between American and British firms, and, indeed, firms in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand, the key issue is whether within-group variance is larger or smaller than between-group variance. That is, commonalities can be found among all of the countries that comprise the so called “Anglo” cluster. Part of the reason for these similarities can be found in the historic British influences in all of these cultures. Even so, in recognition of the strong individualism found in this cluster, it is not surprising to find it is difficult to make generalizations about organization design and management practice. At the same time, part of the differences here can be found in the increasing cultural heterogeneity of people inhabiting all of these countries. Diversity is increasing throughout. Indeed, as these two countries, along with their Australian, Canadian, and New Zealand counterparts, become increasingly multicultural, perhaps the term “Anglo” will lose much of its
meaning as a descriptor of this cluster of countries.10 In fact, these countries and cultures may begin evolving in very different directions in the future. For now, however, the evidence suggests that this country cluster retains much of its utility as characterizing central trends in this cluster.
Japanese kaisha and keiretsu
Japan is often the country of choice when making comparisons with American, British, and other so-called Anglo countries. There are many reasons for this. Many Westerners are somewhat familiar with Japan and its culture. Japan’s economy remains strong in many business sectors and most geographical regions. Company names like Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Mitsui, Toyota, Nissan, Honda, and so forth are household brands, and countless people around the world own products manufactured by them. In view of this, we turn now to a look inside the typical Japanese organization. The first thing to be learned is that, like the situation in the US, there is probably no such thing as a typical Japanese firm, although the variance in Japanese firms is clearly somewhat smaller.
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Japanese cultural patterns
Perhaps the best way to understand how Japanese firms work and do business is to begin with some observations on the local culture. As discussed in Chapter 3, an overview of Japanese culture includes a strong belief in hierarchy, strong collectivism, a strong harmony orientation, moderate monochronism, and strong particularism. Hierarchy beliefs in Japan can be seen in the deep respect shown to elders and people
in positions of authority. In many circumstances, their directives are to be obeyed immediately and without question. This belief follows from early Confucian teachings (see below). Indeed, the concept of authority in Japan differs from that typically found in the West. Western views of authority see power generally flowing in one direction: down. The supervisor or manager gives directions; those below him or her follow them. Authority is a one-way concept. In Japan and many other Asian countries, by contrast, power still flows downwards but those exercising power must also look after the welfare and well-being of those they manage. In other words, a supervisor expects his or her directives to be followed without question, but will also spend considerable time guiding, coaching, and teaching subordinates so they can progress in their careers. Subordinates – and in many cases their families too – will be looked after. Thus, authority here is seen as a two-way street; both sides (superiors and subordinates) have a role to play. By deferring to those above you, you are in essence asking them to look after you.
Japan is also a highly collectivistic nation. Groups generally take precedence over individuals, and people gain their personal identity through their group membership. An old saying, “The nail that sticks out will be hammered down,” best exemplifies the importance of this belief. Contrast this to the old American and British saying, “God helps those who help themselves.” Collectivism versus individualism. As a result,
employees naturally gravitate towards groups at work, and group achievement surpasses individual achievement on the job. Seniority-based (group) rewards are frequently preferred over performance-based (individual) rewards, particularly among older employees.