Fn=ncutting+nfriction=λkpam+knat
Turn MathJaxon
equation(9.38)
Ft=tcutting+tfriction=kpam+μknat
Turn MathJaxon
Where kp, kn, λ, μ, am, and at can be defined, respectively, as the specific cutting force of the workpiece, the yield compression strength of the workpiece, the ratio of two components of force for the chip, the friction coefficient, cutting area of the grain edge, and the wear flatness area. The cutting area of the grain edge can be calculated as:
equation(9.39)
Turn MathJaxon
Where nτ is the density of grain edge [26].
A series of papers were published about fine grinding with mathematical modeling and experiments. One of the experiments has proved a predicted mathematical model of the grinding lines on a workpiece machined by a face-cup grinding wheel. It demonstrates a relationship between the ratio of the chuck, or spindle, and wheel speeds, and the distance between lines on the workpiece grounded. The relationship illustrates that increasing the ratio will increase the distance between lines. These lines are actually parallel curves, which are also affected by the ratio in their curvature [27].
Grinding Wheel: Close View
With a close view of the grinding wheel during operation, it was noticed that the grains interact with the surface of the workpiece mainly by cutting, plowing, and rubbing. Plowing and rubbing are undesired outcomes and will result in affecting the workpiece and increase the roughness. Plowing occurs when a grain slides over the surface without forming a chip, causing a surface change. Rubbing occurs when a loaded workpiece material is on the grinding wheel. Even though the grinding wheels contain a much harder material than the workpiece, wear begins immediately after starting the operation (Figure 9.3).
Figure 9.3.
Grains intact with the workpiece
Figure options
The best results from grinding occur when the rate of material removed from the workpiece is maximized, and the wear of the grinding wheel is reduced. In other words, increasing the grinding ratio of the wheel is accompanied by smooth surfaces and precise dimensions.
The wear that occurs to the grinding wheel can be classified in three mechanisms: attritious grain wear, grain fracture, and bond fracture. The attritious grain wear is similar to the flank wear in cutting tools. It occurs when the grains become dull, resulting in a wear-flat, where the grain slides over the workpiece without removing material and causes an undesired surface finish and high temperature. It is helpful to reduce the attritious wear by carefully choosing the material of the workpiece and the grinding wheel. Attritious wear becomes low if the workpiece and wheel materials are chemically inert. However, grain fracture can help the dull grains to be sharpened. The idea of grain fracturing is known as friability. Friability is useful, as long as it is in a moderate rate, so new grains are always and continuously presented. Bond fracture also plays an important character in the process of grinding. The bond needs to be chosen based on the material to be ground. For example, grinding a hard material needs a soft bond so it can reduce high temperature and residual stresses on the workpiece. Nevertheless, the bond should not be too soft or weak, which will make dislodging the grains too easy and result in an increase of the wheel wear rate. As a consequence, it will be hard to maintain dimensional accuracy in addition to an increase of the workpiece production cost. On the other hand, grinding a soft material needs a hard bond to increase the material removal rate. Nonetheless, the bond should not be too hard, which prevents the dull grains from being dislodged and replaced with new grains. As a result, the grinding process would not be sufficient.
The Grinding Ratio
Because wheel wear is something that cannot be eliminated, the reliability of this wheel can be estimated by calculating the grinding ratio (G-ratio), which is the ratio of the volume removed from the workpiece to the volume of the tool wear [28].
equation(9.40)
Turn MathJaxon
The G-ratio can be low at 1 or high at 1000. Both are considered not good. For instance, the low grinding ratio indicates that the tool wear is too high, which can be expensive and economically inefficient. On the other hand, the high grinding ratio shows that the wheel is too hard for the workpiece material, which can cause an increase in the forces and lead to poor surface texture and vibration.
The value of the G-ratio depends on the grinding wheel, workpiece materials, and the fluid used. Using efficient fluid can increase the G-ratio significantly, which increases the wheel life and accordingly reduces the cost. Also, the G-ratio is not a parameter of the wheel, as the same wheel can have a high or low G-ratio. The G-ratio can be determined by the other parameters, such as speed of the wheel, depth of cut, and pressure, in addition to the workpiece material and fluid [2].
Grinding Types
Among the many types of grinding, the most common are surface grinding, cylindrical grinding, internal grinding, and centerless grinding. Surface grinding is used to grind flat surfaces. The grinding wheel can be horizontal or parallel (vertical). Vertical wheel type uses a rotary table and can grind multiple workpieces at the same time. Horizontal wheels can travel across the direction of the workpiece, which is called traverse grinding, or travel along a groove in the workpiece in an operation is called plunge grinding. Figure 9.4demonstrates the possibilities [2].
Figure 9.4.
Surface grinding types [2].
Figure options
Horizontal grinding wheels can also be used with rotary tables, where it can grind multiple workpieces at once. Also, vertical wheels can work with reciprocating tables [29].
The feed rate on the grinding operation can be either traverse or plunge. In the traverse feed mode, the grinding wheel feed occurs in steps at the end of each grinding wheel pass. Conversely, in the plunge mode, the feed is considered continuous along the pass of the grinding wheel. Figure 9.5 demonstrates the differences.
Figure 9.5.
Traverse and plunge feed modes [28].
Figure options
Additionally, cylindrical grinding is for producing parts used in the auto industry, such as crankshafts, spindles, or pins. The workpiece is mounted from its axial ends. Both the workpiece and the grinding wheel rotate at different speeds from two different motors. Cylindrical grinding can be straight, by mounting the workpiece parallel to the grinding wheel. Cylindrical grinding can also be curved or steep, and can be performed to produce different shapes [2].
Moreover, the internal grinding has the same phenomenon as cylindrical grinding, except that it is for internal rotary parts. The internal grinding is a high-speed operation, because the grinding wheel rotates at a speed of 30,000 rpm or even more. Internal grinding can be one of three types: traverse grinding, plunge grinding, and profile grinding [2].
Finally, centerless grinding is typically the same as cylindrical grinding. However, as implied by its name, the workpiece is not mounted by its axial centers. This method is recommended for mass production and when small workpiece diameters are desired, such as engine valves, camshafts, pins, and any other similar component [23].
Other grinding types such as creep feed grinding are also performed. This type has the same kinematics of surface grinding, but also has a unique distinction as it removes a high amount of material from the workpiece. To help achieve the high removal rate, the workpiece speed should be low with a high-power grinding machine [3]. Usually the surface finish of the workpiece is lower than the other types of grinding, as finishing is not as important as the amount of material to be removed. In creep feed grinding, the depth of cut can be high; in some applications it can be up to 15 mm [2].
If a good surface finish is desirable for a workpiece that is machined by creep feed, an additional operation can be done to improve the surface finish. Usually a method called sparkout is used. The sparkout method uses no depth of cut. It is performed by barely touching the workpiece. This operation uses no coolant fluid, because the heat is desired to melt the external surface to smooth it. Sparkout operations become stable after three to four passes [28]. Some operations are used only for finishing operations. One of them is calledbelt grinding. Belt grinding can replace the traditional grinding in the finishing operations. It uses a belt with abrasives in a grit range of 16–1500 and can rotate at different speeds. To avoid vibrations and to achieve highly accurate dimensions, belt grinding machines necessitate being rigid [2].