It may be much less important that an organization use one best practice, than that the organization has a system in place to ensure a skilled, motivated, and empowered work force. If we adopt a model of SHRM where HRM practices lead to competitive advantage to the extent that they result in valuable, rare, and inimitable resources, it is essential that we identify the specific links between HRM practices and these resources. If, for instance, we agree that firms can achieve a competitive advantage by having a high performance core work force, then it is essential to identify which specific HI& practices actually develop such a work force. This process is complicated by the fact that HRM practices lead to multiple outcomes and these outcomes (e.g., work force skills) can be achieved by multiple combinations of HRM practices. As Delery and Doty (1996) noted, the configurational arguments inherent in the systems view incorporate the assumption of equifinality. It is, therefore, assumed that identical outcomes can be achieved by a number of different systems of HRM practices. In addition, some practices may only lead to certain outcomes when coupled with other practices that support it, For instance, developing valid selection devices may improve the overall skill of the work force. Implementing such a device, however, may only have the desired effect when other practices, such as high base pay that increases the applicant pool, are also in place. Taylor and Russell (1939) long ago realized that valid selection devices only improve the work force to the extent that the firm is able to hire a small percentage of those who apply, To get the most out of a valid selection device it is essential to ensure that recruiting practices that increase the number of qualified applicants, thereby decreasing the selection ratio, are also in place (Shaw, Delery, Jenkins, & Gupta 1998). This highlights the fact that HRM practices may work together in a synergistic interdependent relationship. Other HRM practices may also enhance skills, however, in different ways. For instance, training practices may enhance skills regardless of the use of valid selection devices. From this brief discussion it is clear that HRM practices may
work together in a system in a number of different ways. In other words, individual HRM practices may show different relationships with each other in producing valuable, rare, and inimitable resources. This is a critical issue in SHRM research and it is more fully discussed below. Relationships among HRM Practices. There are many different types of relationships among HRM practices that complicate the identification of systems of practices that load to particular firm resources, It is important, however, that these relationships be acknowledged to improve our understanding of internal fit. First, some WRM practices may show an udditiue relationship with each other in producing a desired outcome. In other words, they have independent non-overlapping effects on the outcome. This would be the case if using both practices together resulted in a greater level of the outcome (i.e., resource) than using either one alone, but not more than the sum of the individual effects of each practice. An example would be using a work sample test in conjunction with a cognitive ability test. If these two techniques measure different knowledge, skills, or abilities, together they may improve the overall skill level of the work force, but by no more than the sum of the effects due to each practice alone. While each of these practices may enhance work force skills, they may have only direct independent effects. Second, HRM practices may have interactbe effects in that their effectiveness depends on the level of the other practices in the system. There are several types of interactive relationships. Some practices exhibiting an interactive relationship may be substitutes for one another iIchniowski, Kochan, Levine, Olson, & Strauss 1996). This occurs when both practices lead to the identical outcome. If two practices are substitutes, then the effect of adding one of them to a system will depend on whether the other practice is present. For instance, if two practices are substitutable and one is already in use, the second practice will add nothing except the expense associated with its implementation. Alternatively, if neither is present, adding one of the practices should increase the desired outcome. Using the work force skills example, it is possible that two different selection devices that both measure cognitive ability may he equally effective in selecting skilled employees. There also may be many different recruitment practices that could result in the same size and quality of applicant pool. In these cases, the firm should choose the least costly alternative. Another example of practices that may be substitutable is the case of work force empowerment. There are countless methods organizations can use to increase participation and empowerment in their work forces. Quality circles, off-line problem-solving teams, and other formal participation in decision-making programs may all lead to increased levels of empowerment in the work force. It is unlikely, however, that using all of these techniques increases empowerment beyond using only one or two techniques. To the extent these pa~icipation-e~ancing techniques produce identical results, they would be considered substitutes for one another. The more common discussion in SHRM research regarding the interactive 294 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT REVIEW VOLUME 8, NUMBER 3.1998 relationship among HRM practices has focused on a synergistic relationship between practices. HRM practices have a synergistic relationship when together they result in a substantially different effect than the sum of their individual effects would lead one to believe. Numerous researchers have argued that such synergistic effects exist (Becker et al. 1997; Delery & Doty 1996; Ichniowski et al. 1997; MacDufIie 1995) and that this is precisely what distinguishes the field of strategic human resource management from other research areas in human resource management. While a similar effect is described above for substitutable practices, the following relationships describe situations that lead to substantially different levels of the outcome than could be expected by either practice alone. In describing synergistic relationships it is important to acknowledge that there are at least two possible forms. First, two practices may work together to enhance each other’s effectiveness. In this case the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. One example of this positive synergistic relationship would be when firm specific training programs are combined with highly selective staffing practices. The effectiveness of the training programs may be greatly enhanced if the organization is able to select individuals who have a greater ability to learn new material. When two practices work together in this fashion, Becker et al. (1997) have labeled their relationship a “powerful connection” signifying the positive outcomes achieved by their combined use. Second, two practices may actually work against one another. In this case, organizations that combine the two practices will have poorer performance than if they employed only one or the other. Becker et al. (1997) used the term “deadly combination” to describe such situations. An example of this would be when a firm designs the workplace to support a team production concept, but then rewards employees based only on individual performance. These rewards may work to undermine the team concept. In sum, HRM practices may have independent or interactive effects on the human resources of a l%-rn. This is not a new idea. Researchers have already discussed various forms of the interactive effects. Ichniowski et al. (1996) argued that some HRM practices may be substitutes, while other complements. In their description of complements, however, they only discuss what I have called positive synergistic effects. The possible negative synergistic effects have not been emphasized much in the literature, with the exception of Becker et al. (1997). Acknowledging these relationships among HRM practices has important implications for the identification and measurement of HRM systems. IMPLICATIONS OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL FIT FOR RESEARCH In the remainder of the article, I discuss what I believe are the most important issues for SHRM researchers to address in the following years. Each of these issues has already been identified and at least partially addressed in the literature. Therefore, I do not give equal weight to each issue. Rather, I focus STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 295 most closely on those issues that I feel have not received their due attention. First, I discuss issues surrounding the appropriate level of analysis for SHRM research. Some researchers have focused solely on the firm level, while others have measured and studied the effectiveness of HRM practices within only parts of the firm. Second, I discuss the issue of construct definition in SHRM research. Becker and Gerhart (1996) point out that researchers have measured HRM philosophies, policies, and practices often without clearly articulating the differences. There is clearly no consensus as to what a HRM practice really is. Third, I review and discuss the issues involving the measurement of HRM systems. I pay particular notice to the relationships among HRM practices noted above. Fourth, I discuss the often unmeasured mediating variables in SHRM research. While I do not argue that these variables must always be measured, they are clearly important in that they provide the answers as to how HRM policies and practices can influence firm performance. It was argued above that HRM systems influence firm performance through creating valuable, rare, and inimitable firm resources. In defining and measuring HRM systems,
มันอาจจะสำคัญมากน้อยที่องค์กรใช้หนึ่งดีที่สุด กว่าที่องค์กรมีระบบการให้แรงงานมีฝีมือ แรงจูงใจ และอำนาจในการ ถ้าเรานำแบบจำลองที่ HRM ปฏิบัตินำไปเปรียบเท่าที่จะทำให้ทรัพยากรที่มีคุณค่า หายาก และ inimitable SHRM มันเป็นสิ่งสำคัญที่เราระบุการเชื่อมโยงเฉพาะระหว่างปฏิบัติ HRM และทรัพยากรเหล่านี้ หาก เช่น เรายอมรับว่า บริษัทสามารถบรรลุความมีแรงงานหลักประสิทธิภาพสูง แล้วจึงจำเป็นต้องระบุ HI ที่เฉพาะ และปฏิบัติจริงพัฒนาเช่นแรงงาน กระบวนการนี้จะมีความซับซ้อนจากข้อเท็จจริง ที่ HRM ปฏิบัตินำไปสู่ผลลัพธ์หลายผลลัพธ์เหล่านี้ (เช่น ทักษะแรงงาน) สามารถทำได้ ด้วยหลายชุดของ HRM ปฏิบัติ เป็น Delery และ Doty (1996) กล่าว อาร์กิวเมนต์ configurational ในมุมมองระบบรวมสมมติฐานของ equifinality ดังนั้น มัน สมมติว่า ผลลัพธ์เหมือนกันสามารถทำได้ตามจำนวนระบบต่าง ๆ ของ HRM ปฏิบัติ นอกจากนี้ ปฏิบัติบางอย่างอาจทำให้ผลเฉพาะเมื่อควบคู่กับการปฏิบัติอื่น ๆ ที่สนับสนุนเฉพาะ เช่น พัฒนาอุปกรณ์เลือกอาจช่วยปรับปรุงทักษะของแรงงานโดยรวม ใช้อุปกรณ์ อย่างไรก็ตาม เท่านั้นได้ผลที่ต้องปฏิบัติอื่น ๆ เช่นค่าจ้างพื้นฐานสูงที่เพิ่มพูลผู้สมัคร ยังอยู่ เทย์เลอร์และรัสเซลล์ (1939) นานรับรู้ว่า อุปกรณ์เลือกพัฒนาแรงงานที่บริษัทจะต้องจ้างเล็กเปอร์เซ็นต์ของผู้ใช้ จะได้รับสูงสุดจากอุปกรณ์เลือกมันเป็นสิ่งสำคัญเพื่อให้แน่ใจว่า สรรหาวิธีที่เพิ่มจำนวนคุณสมบัติผู้สมัคร จึงช่วยลดอัตราการเลือก อยู่ในสถานที่ (Shaw, Delery เจงกินส์ และกุปตา 1998) นี้เน้นความจริงที่ HRM ปฏิบัติอาจทำงานร่วมกันในความสัมพันธ์ที่เปลี่ยนแปลงได้ง่ายกว่าพลัง ปฏิบัติอื่น ๆ HRM อาจยังเพิ่มทักษะ อย่างไรก็ตาม วิธีการ ตัวอย่าง ฝึกปฏิบัติอาจเพิ่มทักษะ โดยการใช้อุปกรณ์ที่เลือก จากคำอธิบายโดยย่อนี้ จึงชัดเจนว่า HRM แนวพฤษภาคมwork together in a system in a number of different ways. In other words, individual HRM practices may show different relationships with each other in producing valuable, rare, and inimitable resources. This is a critical issue in SHRM research and it is more fully discussed below. Relationships among HRM Practices. There are many different types of relationships among HRM practices that complicate the identification of systems of practices that load to particular firm resources, It is important, however, that these relationships be acknowledged to improve our understanding of internal fit. First, some WRM practices may show an udditiue relationship with each other in producing a desired outcome. In other words, they have independent non-overlapping effects on the outcome. This would be the case if using both practices together resulted in a greater level of the outcome (i.e., resource) than using either one alone, but not more than the sum of the individual effects of each practice. An example would be using a work sample test in conjunction with a cognitive ability test. If these two techniques measure different knowledge, skills, or abilities, together they may improve the overall skill level of the work force, but by no more than the sum of the effects due to each practice alone. While each of these practices may enhance work force skills, they may have only direct independent effects. Second, HRM practices may have interactbe effects in that their effectiveness depends on the level of the other practices in the system. There are several types of interactive relationships. Some practices exhibiting an interactive relationship may be substitutes for one another iIchniowski, Kochan, Levine, Olson, & Strauss 1996). This occurs when both practices lead to the identical outcome. If two practices are substitutes, then the effect of adding one of them to a system will depend on whether the other practice is present. For instance, if two practices are substitutable and one is already in use, the second practice will add nothing except the expense associated with its implementation. Alternatively, if neither is present, adding one of the practices should increase the desired outcome. Using the work force skills example, it is possible that two different selection devices that both measure cognitive ability may he equally effective in selecting skilled employees. There also may be many different recruitment practices that could result in the same size and quality of applicant pool. In these cases, the firm should choose the least costly alternative. Another example of practices that may be substitutable is the case of work force empowerment. There are countless methods organizations can use to increase participation and empowerment in their work forces. Quality circles, off-line problem-solving teams, and other formal participation in decision-making programs may all lead to increased levels of empowerment in the work force. It is unlikely, however, that using all of these techniques increases empowerment beyond using only one or two techniques. To the extent these pa~icipation-e~ancing techniques produce identical results, they would be considered substitutes for one another. The more common discussion in SHRM research regarding the interactive 294 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT REVIEW VOLUME 8, NUMBER 3.1998 relationship among HRM practices has focused on a synergistic relationship between practices. HRM practices have a synergistic relationship when together they result in a substantially different effect than the sum of their individual effects would lead one to believe. Numerous researchers have argued that such synergistic effects exist (Becker et al. 1997; Delery & Doty 1996; Ichniowski et al. 1997; MacDufIie 1995) and that this is precisely what distinguishes the field of strategic human resource management from other research areas in human resource management. While a similar effect is described above for substitutable practices, the following relationships describe situations that lead to substantially different levels of the outcome than could be expected by either practice alone. In describing synergistic relationships it is important to acknowledge that there are at least two possible forms. First, two practices may work together to enhance each other’s effectiveness. In this case the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. One example of this positive synergistic relationship would be when firm specific training programs are combined with highly selective staffing practices. The effectiveness of the training programs may be greatly enhanced if the organization is able to select individuals who have a greater ability to learn new material. When two practices work together in this fashion, Becker et al. (1997) have labeled their relationship a “powerful connection” signifying the positive outcomes achieved by their combined use. Second, two practices may actually work against one another. In this case, organizations that combine the two practices will have poorer performance than if they employed only one or the other. Becker et al. (1997) used the term “deadly combination” to describe such situations. An example of this would be when a firm designs the workplace to support a team production concept, but then rewards employees based only on individual performance. These rewards may work to undermine the team concept. In sum, HRM practices may have independent or interactive effects on the human resources of a l%-rn. This is not a new idea. Researchers have already discussed various forms of the interactive effects. Ichniowski et al. (1996) argued that some HRM practices may be substitutes, while other complements. In their description of complements, however, they only discuss what I have called positive synergistic effects. The possible negative synergistic effects have not been emphasized much in the literature, with the exception of Becker et al. (1997). Acknowledging these relationships among HRM practices has important implications for the identification and measurement of HRM systems. IMPLICATIONS OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL FIT FOR RESEARCH In the remainder of the article, I discuss what I believe are the most important issues for SHRM researchers to address in the following years. Each of these issues has already been identified and at least partially addressed in the literature. Therefore, I do not give equal weight to each issue. Rather, I focus STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 295 most closely on those issues that I feel have not received their due attention. First, I discuss issues surrounding the appropriate level of analysis for SHRM research. Some researchers have focused solely on the firm level, while others have measured and studied the effectiveness of HRM practices within only parts of the firm. Second, I discuss the issue of construct definition in SHRM research. Becker and Gerhart (1996) point out that researchers have measured HRM philosophies, policies, and practices often without clearly articulating the differences. There is clearly no consensus as to what a HRM practice really is. Third, I review and discuss the issues involving the measurement of HRM systems. I pay particular notice to the relationships among HRM practices noted above. Fourth, I discuss the often unmeasured mediating variables in SHRM research. While I do not argue that these variables must always be measured, they are clearly important in that they provide the answers as to how HRM policies and practices can influence firm performance. It was argued above that HRM systems influence firm performance through creating valuable, rare, and inimitable firm resources. In defining and measuring HRM systems,
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