Much of what we know about animal locomotion is
derived from studies examining animals moving within a
single, homogeneous environment, at a steady speed
and along a flat grade. As a result, the issue of how
musculoskeletal function might shift to accommodate
variability within the external environment has remained
relatively unexplored. One possibility is that locomotor
muscles are differentially recruited depending upon the
environment in which the animal is moving. A second
possibility is that the same muscles are recruited, but that
they are activated in a different manner so that their
contractile function differs according to environment.
Finally, it is also possible that, in some cases, animals may
not need to alter their musculoskeletal function to move
under different external conditions. In this case,
however, the mechanical behavior appropriate for one
environmental condition may constrain locomotor
performance in another. To begin to explore the means by
which animals accommodate variable conditions in their
environment, we present three case studies examining how
musculoskeletal systems function to allow locomotion
under variable conditions: (1) eels undulating through
water and across land, (2) turkeys running on level and
inclined surfaces, and (3) ducks using their limbs to walk and to paddle. In all three of these examples, the
mechanical behavior of some muscle(s) involved in
locomotion are altered, although to different degrees and
in different ways. In the running turkeys, the mechanical
function of a major ankle extensor muscle shifts from
contracting isometrically on a flat surface (producing little
work and power), to shortening actively during contraction
on an uphill gradient (increasing the amount of work and
power generated). In the ducks, the major ankle extensor
undergoes the same general pattern of activation and
shortening in water and on land, except that the absolute
levels of muscle stress and strain and work output are
greater during terrestrial locomotion. In eels, a transition
to land elicits changes in electromyographic duty cycles
and the relative timing of muscle activation, suggesting
some alteration in the functional mechanics of the
underlying musculature. Only by studying muscle function
in animals moving under more variable conditions can we
begin to characterize the functional breadth of the
vertebrate musculoskeletal system and understand more
fully its evolutionary design.
Much of what we know about animal locomotion is
derived from studies examining animals moving within a
single, homogeneous environment, at a steady speed
and along a flat grade. As a result, the issue of how
musculoskeletal function might shift to accommodate
variability within the external environment has remained
relatively unexplored. One possibility is that locomotor
muscles are differentially recruited depending upon the
environment in which the animal is moving. A second
possibility is that the same muscles are recruited, but that
they are activated in a different manner so that their
contractile function differs according to environment.
Finally, it is also possible that, in some cases, animals may
not need to alter their musculoskeletal function to move
under different external conditions. In this case,
however, the mechanical behavior appropriate for one
environmental condition may constrain locomotor
performance in another. To begin to explore the means by
which animals accommodate variable conditions in their
environment, we present three case studies examining how
musculoskeletal systems function to allow locomotion
under variable conditions: (1) eels undulating through
water and across land, (2) turkeys running on level and
inclined surfaces, and (3) ducks using their limbs to walk and to paddle. In all three of these examples, the
mechanical behavior of some muscle(s) involved in
locomotion are altered, although to different degrees and
in different ways. In the running turkeys, the mechanical
function of a major ankle extensor muscle shifts from
contracting isometrically on a flat surface (producing little
work and power), to shortening actively during contraction
on an uphill gradient (increasing the amount of work and
power generated). In the ducks, the major ankle extensor
undergoes the same general pattern of activation and
shortening in water and on land, except that the absolute
levels of muscle stress and strain and work output are
greater during terrestrial locomotion. In eels, a transition
to land elicits changes in electromyographic duty cycles
and the relative timing of muscle activation, suggesting
some alteration in the functional mechanics of the
underlying musculature. Only by studying muscle function
in animals moving under more variable conditions can we
begin to characterize the functional breadth of the
vertebrate musculoskeletal system and understand more
fully its evolutionary design.
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