68 Journal of International Marketing
Planned Marketing Adaptation and
Multinationals’ Choices Between
Acquisitions and Greenfields
Arjen H.L. Slangen and Desislava Dikova
ABSTRACT
International marketing studies have extensively examined the antecedents of firms’ marketing standardization/
adaptation decisions. However, it is unclear whether such decisions, once planned, codetermine the choice between buying
and building foreign subsidiaries. Analyzing a sample of 150 foreign entries by Dutch firms, the authors find that
the level of marketing adaptation planned for a wholly owned subsidiary is positively related to the likelihood that the
subsidiary will be established through an acquisition rather than through a greenfield investment. Moreover, the
authors find substantial evidence that this positive relationship is stronger for firms that (1) are establishing relatively
larger subsidiaries, (2) have less experience with the industry entered, or (3) are entering less developed countries. The
findings show that firms pursuing higher levels of marketing adaptation assign more value to the marketing adaptation
advantages of acquisitions over greenfields, especially if the risks associated with implementing the planned adaptation
level are high. In addition, firms typically strive for a fit between their international marketing strategy and their mode
of foreign establishment.
Keywords: acquisitions, establishment mode choice, greenfields, planned marketing adaptation
Along-standing debate in international marketing
research has been whether multinational enterprises
(MNEs) should standardize their international
marketing activities because of the increased
homogeneity of national markets or whether they
should instead adapt these activities to local conditions
because of enduring cultural, economic, and regulatory
differences between nations (for reviews, see Cavusgil,
Zou, and Naidu 1993; Schmid and Kotulla 2011). In an
attempt to resolve this heated debate, scholars have
recently developed a synthesizing perspective arguing
that marketing standardization/adaptation decisions are
not binary choices but rather choices along a continuum
of levels of adaptation (Cavusgil, Zou, and Naidu 1993;
Gabrielsson, Gabrielsson, and Seppälä 2012; Ryans, Griffith,
and White 2003; Schilke, Reimann, and Thomas
2009; Shoham et al. 2008; Taylor and Okazaki 2006).
This perspective has served as the basis for many studies,
most of which have focused on identifying the determinants
of the level of marketing adaptation that MNEs
pursue in foreign nations (for reviews, see Ryans, Griffith,
and White 2003; Schmid and Kotulla 2011; Theodosiou
and Leonidou 2003).
Although these studies have substantially increased our
understanding of the antecedents of MNEs’ international
marketing strategies, they have not explored
whether such strategies influence the mode through
which MNEs choose to become active in a foreign country.
The few studies that have explored this issue have
Arjen H.L. Slangen is Associate Professor of International Business,
Department of Strategic Management & Entrepreneurship, Rotterdam
School of Management, Erasmus University Rotterdam (e-mail:
aslangen@rsm.nl). Desislava Dikova is Professor of International
Business, Department of Global Business & Trade, WU Vienna (email:
desislava.dikova@wu.ac.at). The authors thank Keith Brouthers
for his valuable contributions to an earlier version of this article.
Matthew Robson served as associate editor for this article.
Journal of International Marketing
©2014, American Marketing Association
Vol. 22, No. 2, 2014, pp. 68–88
ISSN 1069-0031X (print) 1547-7215 (electronic)
Planned Marketing Adaptation and Multinationals’ Choices 69
shown that marketing strategy and entry mode are
closely linked. They have found that, compared with
MNEs aiming for low marketing adaptation, those aiming
for high adaptation are more likely to choose joint
ventures (JVs) with local firms over wholly owned subsidiaries
(WOSs) (Özsomer, Bodur, and Cavusgil 1991;
Rau and Preble 1987). Such JVs allow adaptive MNEs
to gain access to their partners’ local market knowledge
and brand names (Griffith, Zeybek, and O’Brien 2001;
Tsang, Nguyen, and Erramilli 2004), thereby facilitating
local marketing adaptation.
However, although MNEs aiming for such adaptation
may be relatively likely to choose JV entry, they often
still choose WOSs because JVs entail a high risk that
crucial proprietary knowledge might leak to the JV partner
(Brouthers 2002; Ekeledo and Sivakumar 1998;
Malhotra, Agarwal, and Ulgado 2003). Indeed, many
local market-oriented JVs, especially those in less developed
countries, are second-best solutions that are only
chosen when WOSs are legally prohibited (Kale and
Anand 2006). This raises the question whether MNEs
establishing WOSs also have an entry option at their
disposal that facilitates local marketing adaptation. In
this article, we argue that they do: MNEs opting for
WOSs can facilitate local marketing adaptation through
their establishment mode choice, in particular, by choosing
full acquisitions instead of wholly owned greenfield
start-ups. Like JVs (which include both greenfield JVs
and partial acquisitions), full acquisitions typically also
come with local market knowledge and brand names,
whereas wholly owned greenfields do not (Anand and
Delios 1997, 2002; Chen and Zeng 2004; Hennart and
Park 1993); thus, full acquisitions have marketing adaptation
advantages over wholly owned greenfields. All
else being equal, MNE parent executives will consider
these advantages more valuable if they want a higher
level of local marketing adaptation. Therefore, we
hypothesize that the planned level of local marketing
adaptation is positively related to the likelihood that
WOSs will be established through acquisitions rather
than through greenfields.
We also expect that the positive relationship between the
planned level of marketing adaptation and the likelihood
of acquisition entry will depend on the perceived risks
associated with implementing the planned adaptation
level. The higher these perceived risks, the keener MNE
parent executives will be to limit them, and the more
these executives will value the marketing adaptation
advantages of acquisitions at a given planned adaptation
level, which will cause that level to further stimulate
acquisition entry. We propose that the perceived risks
associated with implementing the planned adaptation
level stem from three factors: the size of the prospective
WOS relative to that of its MNE parent, the parent’s
experience with the subsidiary’s industry, and the economic
development level of the country entered. The
greater the prospective subsidiary’s relative size, the
greater the perceived risks associated with implementing
the planned adaptation level and, thus, the higher the perceived
value of the marketing adaptation advantages of
acquisitions at that planned adaptation level. We therefore
hypothesize that the positive relationship between
the planned level of marketing adaptation and the likelihood
of acquisition entry is even stronger for prospective
WOSs whose size is relatively larger. Likewise, the lower
the MNE parent’s experience with the subsidiary’s industry
and the less developed the country of entry, the greater
the perceived risks associated with implementing the
planned adaptation level and, thus, the higher the perceived
value of the marketing adaptation advantages of
acquisitions at that planned adaptation level. Therefore,
we hypothesize that the positive relationship between the
planned level of marketing adaptation and the likelihood
of acquisition entry is even stronger for both MNE parents
with less experience in the industry entered and those
entering less developed countries.
To test these hypotheses, we analyze a sample of 150
WOSs built or acquired by Dutch MNEs in 32 foreign
countries. We exclude JVs to rule out the possibility that
they drive the effect of the planned level of marketing
adaptation given that they also have marketing adaptation
advantages and are more frequently created
through acquisitions than through greenfields (Brouthers
and Dikova 2010; Slangen 2011; Slangen and Van Tulder
2009). We obtain substantial and robust support for
our hypotheses, confirming that MNEs pursuing higher
marketing adaptation levels assign more value to the
marketing adaptation advantages of acquisitions, especially
if the risks associated with implementing the
planned adaptation level are deemed high.
Overall, our interdisciplinary approach of integrating
standardization/adaptation and establishment mode
research makes clear that, in general, managers strive
for a fit between their preferred level of marketing adaptation
and their choice of establishment mode. This
insight adds to recent studies emphasizing the importance
of fitting foreign marketing strategies to the external
and internal context in which they will be implemented
(Hultman, Robson, and Katsikeas 2009;
Katsikeas, Samiee, and Theodosiou 2006). Specifically,
70 Journal of International Marketing
our findings suggest that after MNEs have decided on
their marketing strategy by fitting it to the context, they
subsequently fit their mode of foreign establishment to
the chosen strategy.
The current study also contributes to the establishment
mode researach. Specifically, whereas prior studies have
argued that acquisitions often come with local brands
and market knowledge (Anand and Delios 1997, 2002;
Chen and Zeng 2004; Hennart and Park 1993), we
show that the perceived value of these assets, as
reflected in the likelihood of acquisition entry, is a function
of the perceived need for local marketing adaptation.
Furthermore, whereas prior establishment mode
studies have explored the direct effects of a prospective
subsidiary’s relative size, its parent’s industry experience,
and the host country’s development level
(Brouthers and Brouthers 2000; Brouthers
68 Journal of International MarketingPlanned Marketing Adaptation andMultinationals’ Choices BetweenAcquisitions and GreenfieldsArjen H.L. Slangen and Desislava DikovaABSTRACTInternational marketing studies have extensively examined the antecedents of firms’ marketing standardization/adaptation decisions. However, it is unclear whether such decisions, once planned, codetermine the choice between buyingand building foreign subsidiaries. Analyzing a sample of 150 foreign entries by Dutch firms, the authors find thatthe level of marketing adaptation planned for a wholly owned subsidiary is positively related to the likelihood that thesubsidiary will be established through an acquisition rather than through a greenfield investment. Moreover, theauthors find substantial evidence that this positive relationship is stronger for firms that (1) are establishing relativelylarger subsidiaries, (2) have less experience with the industry entered, or (3) are entering less developed countries. Thefindings show that firms pursuing higher levels of marketing adaptation assign more value to the marketing adaptationadvantages of acquisitions over greenfields, especially if the risks associated with implementing the planned adaptationlevel are high. In addition, firms typically strive for a fit between their international marketing strategy and their modeof foreign establishment.Keywords: acquisitions, establishment mode choice, greenfields, planned marketing adaptationAlong-standing debate in international marketingresearch has been whether multinational enterprises(MNEs) should standardize their internationalmarketing activities because of the increasedhomogeneity of national markets or whether theyshould instead adapt these activities to local conditionsbecause of enduring cultural, economic, and regulatorydifferences between nations (for reviews, see Cavusgil,Zou, and Naidu 1993; Schmid and Kotulla 2011). In anattempt to resolve this heated debate, scholars haverecently developed a synthesizing perspective arguingthat marketing standardization/adaptation decisions arenot binary choices but rather choices along a continuumof levels of adaptation (Cavusgil, Zou, and Naidu 1993;Gabrielsson, Gabrielsson, and Seppälä 2012; Ryans, Griffith,and White 2003; Schilke, Reimann, and Thomas2009; Shoham et al. 2008; Taylor and Okazaki 2006).This perspective has served as the basis for many studies,most of which have focused on identifying the determinantsof the level of marketing adaptation that MNEspursue in foreign nations (for reviews, see Ryans, Griffith,and White 2003; Schmid and Kotulla 2011; Theodosiouand Leonidou 2003).Although these studies have substantially increased ourunderstanding of the antecedents of MNEs’ internationalmarketing strategies, they have not exploredwhether such strategies influence the mode throughwhich MNEs choose to become active in a foreign country.The few studies that have explored this issue haveArjen H.L. Slangen is Associate Professor of International Business,Department of Strategic Management & Entrepreneurship, RotterdamSchool of Management, Erasmus University Rotterdam (e-mail:aslangen@rsm.nl). Desislava Dikova is Professor of InternationalBusiness, Department of Global Business & Trade, WU Vienna (email:desislava.dikova@wu.ac.at). The authors thank Keith Brouthersfor his valuable contributions to an earlier version of this article.Matthew Robson served as associate editor for this article.Journal of International Marketing©2014, American Marketing AssociationVol. 22, No. 2, 2014, pp. 68–88ISSN 1069-0031X (print) 1547-7215 (electronic)Planned Marketing Adaptation and Multinationals’ Choices 69shown that marketing strategy and entry mode areclosely linked. They have found that, compared withMNEs aiming for low marketing adaptation, those aimingfor high adaptation are more likely to choose jointventures (JVs) with local firms over wholly owned subsidiaries(WOSs) (Özsomer, Bodur, and Cavusgil 1991;Rau and Preble 1987). Such JVs allow adaptive MNEsto gain access to their partners’ local market knowledgeand brand names (Griffith, Zeybek, and O’Brien 2001;Tsang, Nguyen, and Erramilli 2004), thereby facilitatinglocal marketing adaptation.However, although MNEs aiming for such adaptationmay be relatively likely to choose JV entry, they oftenstill choose WOSs because JVs entail a high risk thatcrucial proprietary knowledge might leak to the JV partner(Brouthers 2002; Ekeledo and Sivakumar 1998;Malhotra, Agarwal, and Ulgado 2003). Indeed, manylocal market-oriented JVs, especially those in less developedcountries, are second-best solutions that are onlychosen when WOSs are legally prohibited (Kale andAnand 2006). This raises the question whether MNEsestablishing WOSs also have an entry option at theirdisposal that facilitates local marketing adaptation. Inthis article, we argue that they do: MNEs opting forWOSs can facilitate local marketing adaptation throughtheir establishment mode choice, in particular, by choosingfull acquisitions instead of wholly owned greenfieldstart-ups. Like JVs (which include both greenfield JVsand partial acquisitions), full acquisitions typically alsocome with local market knowledge and brand names,whereas wholly owned greenfields do not (Anand andDelios 1997, 2002; Chen and Zeng 2004; Hennart andPark 1993); thus, full acquisitions have marketing adaptationadvantages over wholly owned greenfields. Allelse being equal, MNE parent executives will considerthese advantages more valuable if they want a higherlevel of local marketing adaptation. Therefore, wehypothesize that the planned level of local marketingadaptation is positively related to the likelihood thatWOSs will be established through acquisitions ratherthan through greenfields.We also expect that the positive relationship between theplanned level of marketing adaptation and the likelihoodof acquisition entry will depend on the perceived risksassociated with implementing the planned adaptationlevel. The higher these perceived risks, the keener MNEparent executives will be to limit them, and the morethese executives will value the marketing adaptationadvantages of acquisitions at a given planned adaptationlevel, which will cause that level to further stimulateacquisition entry. We propose that the perceived risksassociated with implementing the planned adaptationlevel stem from three factors: the size of the prospectiveWOS relative to that of its MNE parent, the parent’sexperience with the subsidiary’s industry, and the economicdevelopment level of the country entered. Thegreater the prospective subsidiary’s relative size, thegreater the perceived risks associated with implementingthe planned adaptation level and, thus, the higher the perceivedvalue of the marketing adaptation advantages ofacquisitions at that planned adaptation level. We thereforehypothesize that the positive relationship betweenthe planned level of marketing adaptation and the likelihoodof acquisition entry is even stronger for prospectiveWOSs whose size is relatively larger. Likewise, the lowerthe MNE parent’s experience with the subsidiary’s industryand the less developed the country of entry, the greater
the perceived risks associated with implementing the
planned adaptation level and, thus, the higher the perceived
value of the marketing adaptation advantages of
acquisitions at that planned adaptation level. Therefore,
we hypothesize that the positive relationship between the
planned level of marketing adaptation and the likelihood
of acquisition entry is even stronger for both MNE parents
with less experience in the industry entered and those
entering less developed countries.
To test these hypotheses, we analyze a sample of 150
WOSs built or acquired by Dutch MNEs in 32 foreign
countries. We exclude JVs to rule out the possibility that
they drive the effect of the planned level of marketing
adaptation given that they also have marketing adaptation
advantages and are more frequently created
through acquisitions than through greenfields (Brouthers
and Dikova 2010; Slangen 2011; Slangen and Van Tulder
2009). We obtain substantial and robust support for
our hypotheses, confirming that MNEs pursuing higher
marketing adaptation levels assign more value to the
marketing adaptation advantages of acquisitions, especially
if the risks associated with implementing the
planned adaptation level are deemed high.
Overall, our interdisciplinary approach of integrating
standardization/adaptation and establishment mode
research makes clear that, in general, managers strive
for a fit between their preferred level of marketing adaptation
and their choice of establishment mode. This
insight adds to recent studies emphasizing the importance
of fitting foreign marketing strategies to the external
and internal context in which they will be implemented
(Hultman, Robson, and Katsikeas 2009;
Katsikeas, Samiee, and Theodosiou 2006). Specifically,
70 Journal of International Marketing
our findings suggest that after MNEs have decided on
their marketing strategy by fitting it to the context, they
subsequently fit their mode of foreign establishment to
the chosen strategy.
The current study also contributes to the establishment
mode researach. Specifically, whereas prior studies have
argued that acquisitions often come with local brands
and market knowledge (Anand and Delios 1997, 2002;
Chen and Zeng 2004; Hennart and Park 1993), we
show that the perceived value of these assets, as
reflected in the likelihood of acquisition entry, is a function
of the perceived need for local marketing adaptation.
Furthermore, whereas prior establishment mode
studies have explored the direct effects of a prospective
subsidiary’s relative size, its parent’s industry experience,
and the host country’s development level
(Brouthers and Brouthers 2000; Brouthers
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