Introduction
The Irish dairy industry is seasonal, and requires a production system that
synchronises peak milk yields with peak spring grass supply. To achieve efficiency in
such a system requires high cow fertility and a compact calving pattern. However,
over the last two to three decades reproductive wastage has been the primary cause of
involuntary culling in dairy herds (Kelly and Whitaker 2001) and is a significant
limiting factor in the financial performance of herds (Esslemont et al. 2001).
Furthermore EU regulations that attempt to limit greenhouse gas emissions
(Garnsworthy 2004) and nitrate and phosphorus use means that the practice of
carrying excess cow numbers to accommodate poor cow fertility is extremely
inefficient. Clearly the objective must be to maximise individual cow as well as herd
fertility.
The reasons for low cow fertility are probably multifactorial (Kelly and Whitaker
2001) and include cow related factors such as periparturient and production mediated
diseases and management related factors associated with pre- and post-partum
nutrition, oestrus detection and insemination technique. In isolation or combined,
these factors can contribute to delays in the resumption of postpartum cyclicity and
weaker expression of oestrus resulting in reduced detection rates. Furthermore,
despite published estimates indicating that normal fertilisation rates in moderate
yielding cows and heifers are approximately 90% (Sreenan et al. 2001), there is now
4 emerging evidence of a reduction in fertilisation rate in high yielding cows that is also
contributing to reproductive wastage (Moore and Thatcher 2006). Notwithstanding
this, the most significant contributory factor to reproductive wastage is embryo loss
and in particular the losses sustained between day 8 and 16 post insemination
(Sreenan et al. 2001).
The reason(s) for the high level of early embryo loss in cattle and particularly in high
genetic merit, high yielding, dairy cows are poorly understood (Sreenan et al. 2001).
Several factors have been implicated albeit with a lack of supporting experimental
evidence (Diskin et al. 2006). These factors include genetic improvement, inadequate
nutrition, poor reproductive management, increased incidence of disease, particularly
in the periparturient period, and poor welfare conditions (Lucy 2001) though the
relative importance of these factors is unclear. It is clear that these factors interact and
there are varying contributions arising from specific individual farm management
strategies (Roche 2006). However, it is clear that to achieve a good level of cow
fertility, appropriate nutritional management of the cow is important (Hess et al. 2005,
Roche 2006).
The abrupt shift in nutritional requirements after parturition (Butler 2001) results in
dairy cows experiencing an intense energy deficit due to the onset of copious milk
synthesis coupled with a depressed appetite (Block et al. 2001). The modern high
producing dairy cow partitions a significant quantity of the nutrients available to it
towards milk production and away from body stores and reproduction (Roche 2006).
Maternal metabolism at this time is almost completely devoted to the support of
mammary metabolism (Block et al. 2001). While a degree of adipose tissue
mobilisation is normal in early lactation (Bauman and Currie 1980), the energy
demands of lactation in the high producing cow create a severe negative energy
balance (Tamminga 2006). Prolonged negative energy balance is thought to have
significant deleterious effects on post partum ovarian activity and subsequent
conception rates (O' Callaghan and Boland 1999). Clearly, achieving high dry matter
intake in the early postpartum period is crucial to normal resumption of ovulation and
subsequent fertility (Roche et al. 2000). The supply of extra dietary rumen protected
fat has been suggested as a possible approach to improve fertility in dairy cows
(Tamminga 2006). Supplemental fats increase the energy density of the diet and
attempt to meet the energetic demands of lactation. It is the preferred method for
increasing dietary energy density as the alternative; increasing starch content, is often
associated with deleterious effects on digestion, health and milk composition (Staples
et al. 1998). Fat supplementation may play a role in ameliorating the negative energy
balance experienced by the early postpartum cow, and therefore in improving
subsequent reproductive performance. However, it has been suggested that specific
dietary fatty acids and in particular polyunsaturated fatty acids may favour
reproductive processes independent of possible energy effects and these include
increased availability of the fatty acid precursors of steroid and eicosanoid synthesis
(Mattos et al. 2000).
A major obstacle to the effectiveness of PUFA supplementation in cattle is the
extensive ruminal hydrogenation of dietary PUFA to saturated FAs. To achieve
significant increases in systemic or tissue PUFA concentrations, it is suggested that
unsaturated fatty acid sources be protected or rendered rumen inert. In addition,
5 excessive quantities of lipid in the rumen can have negative effects on digestion which
may compromise any potential benefits associated with supplementation.
Introduction
The Irish dairy industry is seasonal, and requires a production system that
synchronises peak milk yields with peak spring grass supply. To achieve efficiency in
such a system requires high cow fertility and a compact calving pattern. However,
over the last two to three decades reproductive wastage has been the primary cause of
involuntary culling in dairy herds (Kelly and Whitaker 2001) and is a significant
limiting factor in the financial performance of herds (Esslemont et al. 2001).
Furthermore EU regulations that attempt to limit greenhouse gas emissions
(Garnsworthy 2004) and nitrate and phosphorus use means that the practice of
carrying excess cow numbers to accommodate poor cow fertility is extremely
inefficient. Clearly the objective must be to maximise individual cow as well as herd
fertility.
The reasons for low cow fertility are probably multifactorial (Kelly and Whitaker
2001) and include cow related factors such as periparturient and production mediated
diseases and management related factors associated with pre- and post-partum
nutrition, oestrus detection and insemination technique. In isolation or combined,
these factors can contribute to delays in the resumption of postpartum cyclicity and
weaker expression of oestrus resulting in reduced detection rates. Furthermore,
despite published estimates indicating that normal fertilisation rates in moderate
yielding cows and heifers are approximately 90% (Sreenan et al. 2001), there is now
4 emerging evidence of a reduction in fertilisation rate in high yielding cows that is also
contributing to reproductive wastage (Moore and Thatcher 2006). Notwithstanding
this, the most significant contributory factor to reproductive wastage is embryo loss
and in particular the losses sustained between day 8 and 16 post insemination
(Sreenan et al. 2001).
The reason(s) for the high level of early embryo loss in cattle and particularly in high
genetic merit, high yielding, dairy cows are poorly understood (Sreenan et al. 2001).
Several factors have been implicated albeit with a lack of supporting experimental
evidence (Diskin et al. 2006). These factors include genetic improvement, inadequate
nutrition, poor reproductive management, increased incidence of disease, particularly
in the periparturient period, and poor welfare conditions (Lucy 2001) though the
relative importance of these factors is unclear. It is clear that these factors interact and
there are varying contributions arising from specific individual farm management
strategies (Roche 2006). However, it is clear that to achieve a good level of cow
fertility, appropriate nutritional management of the cow is important (Hess et al. 2005,
Roche 2006).
The abrupt shift in nutritional requirements after parturition (Butler 2001) results in
dairy cows experiencing an intense energy deficit due to the onset of copious milk
synthesis coupled with a depressed appetite (Block et al. 2001). The modern high
producing dairy cow partitions a significant quantity of the nutrients available to it
towards milk production and away from body stores and reproduction (Roche 2006).
Maternal metabolism at this time is almost completely devoted to the support of
mammary metabolism (Block et al. 2001). While a degree of adipose tissue
mobilisation is normal in early lactation (Bauman and Currie 1980), the energy
demands of lactation in the high producing cow create a severe negative energy
balance (Tamminga 2006). Prolonged negative energy balance is thought to have
significant deleterious effects on post partum ovarian activity and subsequent
conception rates (O' Callaghan and Boland 1999). Clearly, achieving high dry matter
intake in the early postpartum period is crucial to normal resumption of ovulation and
subsequent fertility (Roche et al. 2000). The supply of extra dietary rumen protected
fat has been suggested as a possible approach to improve fertility in dairy cows
(Tamminga 2006). Supplemental fats increase the energy density of the diet and
attempt to meet the energetic demands of lactation. It is the preferred method for
increasing dietary energy density as the alternative; increasing starch content, is often
associated with deleterious effects on digestion, health and milk composition (Staples
et al. 1998). Fat supplementation may play a role in ameliorating the negative energy
balance experienced by the early postpartum cow, and therefore in improving
subsequent reproductive performance. However, it has been suggested that specific
dietary fatty acids and in particular polyunsaturated fatty acids may favour
reproductive processes independent of possible energy effects and these include
increased availability of the fatty acid precursors of steroid and eicosanoid synthesis
(Mattos et al. 2000).
A major obstacle to the effectiveness of PUFA supplementation in cattle is the
extensive ruminal hydrogenation of dietary PUFA to saturated FAs. To achieve
significant increases in systemic or tissue PUFA concentrations, it is suggested that
unsaturated fatty acid sources be protected or rendered rumen inert. In addition,
5 excessive quantities of lipid in the rumen can have negative effects on digestion which
may compromise any potential benefits associated with supplementation.
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