Motivation is an important first
step toward any action or
change in behavior. Sayings
such as “You can lead a horse to water,
but you can’t make it drink” reflect the
fact that people generally will not perform
desired behaviors unless or until they are
motivated to do so. Until recently, many
alcoholism treatment professionals used
this approach when treating alcoholic
patients, contending that interventions
were useless until the alcohol-dependent
patient was self-motivated to change his
or her drinking behavior.
During the past several years, however,
researchers and clinicians have shown
increased interest in the concept of motivation
and the role that motivation
plays in recovery from alcohol problems.
Researchers have outlined a series of stages
of change to describe the process that a
person goes through when making a
behavioral change. Those stages—precontemplation
(i.e., not yet considering
change), contemplation (i.e., considering
change but not taking action), preparation
(i.e., planning to change), action (i.e.,
making changes in one’s behavior), and
maintenance (i.e., changing one’s lifestyle
to maintain new behavior)—offer a new
perspective on motivation and the process
of behavior change (DiClemente and
Prochaska 1998; Prochaska et al. 1992).
Recognizing that patients vary in their
motivation or readiness to change,
researchers have designed interventions
and treatments to enhance motivation
(DiClemente et al. 1992; Higgins and
Budney 1993; Miller and Rollnick 1991;
Miller et al. 1992; Stitzer et al. 1993).
This article examines the concept of
motivation and its influence on behavior
change, the role of motivation in
alcoholism treatment, and treatment
methods designed specifically to influence
motivation.
Stages of Change
and the Transtheoretical
Model of Change
A number of studies (e.g., Carney and
Kivlahan 1995; DiClemente and Hughes
1990) have demonstrated that people
with alcohol and other drug problems
who seek or participate in treatment
differ significantly in their levels of
motivation to change. Using an alcohol
version of the University of Rhode
Island Change Assessment (URICA)
scale, DiClemente and Hughes (1990)
reported on the various stages of change
among alcohol-dependent patients
seeking outpatient treatment. Patients
in the precontemplation stage were more
likely to deny that they had a drinking
problem, stating, for example, “I am
not the person with the problem. It does
not make much sense for me to be here”
or “As far as I am concerned, I do not
86 Alcohol Research & Health
CARLO C. DICLEMENTE, PH.D., is a
professor and chair of the Department of
Psychology and LORI E. BELLINO, M.ED.,
and TARA M. NEAVINS, M.S., are graduate
students in the Human Services Psychology
Program and research assistants to Dr.
DiClemente at the University of Maryland,
Baltimore County, Baltimore, Maryland.
Vol. 23, No. 2, 1999 87
Motivation and Alcoholism Treatment
have any [alcohol] problems that need
changing.” Conversely, patients in the
preparation and action stages were more
likely to admit that they had a drinking
problem, stating, for example, “I am
actively working on my [alcohol] problem”
and “I have a problem and I really
think I should work on it.”
Using the same scale, Carney and
Kivlahan (1995) found similar profiles
among a large group of substanceabusing
veterans. The same variations
in motivation have been found in other
treatment-seeking populations, including
inpatient substance abusers (Isenhart
1994) and polydrug users in methadone
maintenance treatment (Belding et al.
1995). Recognizing these differences
was the first step to evaluating how differences
in motivation affect participation
in treatment programs and drinking
outcomes.
Assessment of motivation presents a
significant challenge. External influences
and pressures, as well as internal thoughts
and feelings, contribute to a person’s
motivation both to consider and implment
a change in behavior (Cunningham
et al. 1994). Evaluating a person’s motivation
requires assessment of the person’s
attitudes and intentions, confidence
and commitment, and decisionmaking
ability (DiClemente and Prochaska
1998). Researchers have attempted to
measure motivation in several different
ways, including querying patients about
their intentions and plans to change and
asking multiple questions reflecting the
different stages of change (DiClemente
and Prochaska 1998; McConnaughy et
al. 1989; Miller and Tonigan 1996;
Rollnick et al. 1992). Other researchers
have attempted to develop measures of
motivation for treatment (DeLeon et
al. 1997; Simpson and Joe 1993).
As an outcome of the revised perspective
on the concept of motivation,
clinicians and researchers are attempting
to intervene earlier with problem
drinkers and design programs to recruit
and motivate unmotivated patients.
Such programs are designed to address
specific tasks and obstacles that arise at
the different stages of change. To move
from the precontemplation stage, the
patient must admit to having an alcohol
problem and recognize the need to
change his or her drinking behavior. In
the contemplation stage, the patient
decides to change his or her behavior
after weighing the positive and negative
aspects of change. In the preparation
stage, the patient increases his or her
commitment to change and plans to
take action. In the action stage, the
patient develops specific behavioral
strategies to change his or her drinking
behavior. Finally, in the maintenance
stage, the patient strives to avoid relapse
by developing a lifestyle that supports
the changes in his or her drinking. For
successful recovery, patient motivation
is important throughout the entire process,
although it is an especially important
focus during the first three stages.
Motivation To Change and
Motivation for Treatment
Motivation appears to be a critical dimension
in influencing patients to seek,
comply with, and complete treatment
as well as to make successful long-term
changes in their drinking (DiClemente
and Scott 1997). Studies among substance-
abusing patients have demonstrated
the importance of motivation
for treatment in predicting treatment
participation and recovery (DeLeon et al.
1997; Simpson and Joe 1993). Motivation
for changing problem behaviors like
drinking, however, is not synonymous
with motivation for participating in
treatment. Many patients enter treatment
under pressure from other people.
Although these patients may attend
treatment, they may not be ready to
change their drinking behavior and
may not actively participate in treatment.
Most substance abuse treatment
programs and self-help initiatives are
designed to assist patients who are ready
to take action and address their problems.
Depending on the type of program and
the intensity of the examination procedures
before admission, however, people
who are not ready to change or who are
in the early stages of change are often
admitted into these programs. Therefore,
most clinicians need to know how to
handle unmotivated or reluctant patients
who enter treatment and who are, at best,
ambivalent about changing their behavior.
As pointed out by Miller and Rollnick
(1991), traditional approaches to treating
unmotivated patients with alcohol
problems often use aggressive and confrontational
strategies in response to
the patients’ denial. In one widely used
approach, a team of family members,
friends, and colleagues unite to confront
the drinker and convince him or
her that alcoholism treatment is necessary
(Johnson 1986; Liepman 1993).
Recent evidence indicates, however,
that confrontation can foster denial and
resistance in the drinker (Miller et al.
1993). As Miller (1985) emphasized in
his review of the motivation literature,
clinicians who work with unmotivated
patients must implement less confrontational
and more motivation-generating
treatment approaches.
Sources of Motivation
Research investigating sources of motivation
for change typically has compared
intrinsic sources of motivation (e.g.,
feeling a sense of accomplishment) with
extrinsic sources (e.g., financial incentives)
(Deci and Ryan 1987). Generally,
internal motivation is associated with
greater long-term change than is external
motivation (Deci and Ryan 1985).
Curry and colleagues (1991) found
that offering people financial incentives
(i.e., extrinsic motivation) to stop
smoking was less effective in both the
short and long term than an intervention
that enhanced smokers’ intrinsic
motivation by encouraging and promoting
personal responsibility.
Ryan and colleagues (1995) found
that among people who received
outpatient alcohol treatment, internal
motivation (as assessed by a treatment
motivation questionnaire) was related
positively to both treatment involvement
and retention. Among the study
subjects, the outpatients with high
levels of both internal and external
motivation had the highest treatment
retention and treatment attendance
outcomes. Irrespective of their level of
external motivation, outpatients with
low internal motivation had the worst
treatment outcomes. Finally, patients
with more severe alcohol problems
88 Alcohol Research & Health
generally had greater internal motivation
for treatment. The severity of the
patient’s alcohol problems enhances
internal motivation, presumably because
the problem severity increases distress
and thus influences decisionmaking.
Although internal motivation
appears to be more effective for longterm
success, external motivation seems
to promote short-term abstinence from
alcohol and other drugs. Interventions
that offer financial incentives to patients
who submit drug-free urine samples
have been found to be significantly
more effective than a standard treatment
without financial incentives
(Higgins and Budney 1993; Stitzer et
al. 1993) (see the article in this issue
by Higgins and Petry, pp. 122–127).
Relying solely on external pressure
and incentives to influence a patient
to modify his or her drinking behavio
Motivation is an important firststep toward any action orchange in behavior. Sayingssuch as “You can lead a horse to water,but you can’t make it drink” reflect thefact that people generally will not performdesired behaviors unless or until they aremotivated to do so. Until recently, manyalcoholism treatment professionals usedthis approach when treating alcoholicpatients, contending that interventionswere useless until the alcohol-dependentpatient was self-motivated to change hisor her drinking behavior.During the past several years, however,researchers and clinicians have shownincreased interest in the concept of motivationand the role that motivationplays in recovery from alcohol problems.Researchers have outlined a series of stagesof change to describe the process that aperson goes through when making abehavioral change. Those stages—precontemplation(i.e., not yet consideringchange), contemplation (i.e., consideringchange but not taking action), preparation(i.e., planning to change), action (i.e.,making changes in one’s behavior), andmaintenance (i.e., changing one’s lifestyleto maintain new behavior)—offer a newperspective on motivation and the processof behavior change (DiClemente andProchaska 1998; Prochaska et al. 1992).Recognizing that patients vary in theirmotivation or readiness to change,researchers have designed interventionsand treatments to enhance motivation(DiClemente et al. 1992; Higgins andBudney 1993; Miller and Rollnick 1991;Miller et al. 1992; Stitzer et al. 1993).This article examines the concept ofmotivation and its influence on behaviorchange, the role of motivation inalcoholism treatment, and treatmentmethods designed specifically to influencemotivation.Stages of Changeand the TranstheoreticalModel of ChangeA number of studies (e.g., Carney andKivlahan 1995; DiClemente and Hughes1990) have demonstrated that peoplewith alcohol and other drug problemswho seek or participate in treatmentdiffer significantly in their levels ofmotivation to change. Using an alcoholversion of the University of RhodeIsland Change Assessment (URICA)scale, DiClemente and Hughes (1990)reported on the various stages of changeamong alcohol-dependent patientsseeking outpatient treatment. Patientsin the precontemplation stage were morelikely to deny that they had a drinkingproblem, stating, for example, “I amnot the person with the problem. It doesnot make much sense for me to be here”or “As far as I am concerned, I do not86 Alcohol Research & HealthCARLO C. DICLEMENTE, PH.D., is aprofessor and chair of the Department ofPsychology and LORI E. BELLINO, M.ED.,and TARA M. NEAVINS, M.S., are graduatestudents in the Human Services PsychologyProgram and research assistants to Dr.DiClemente at the University of Maryland,Baltimore County, Baltimore, Maryland.Vol. 23, No. 2, 1999 87
Motivation and Alcoholism Treatment
have any [alcohol] problems that need
changing.” Conversely, patients in the
preparation and action stages were more
likely to admit that they had a drinking
problem, stating, for example, “I am
actively working on my [alcohol] problem”
and “I have a problem and I really
think I should work on it.”
Using the same scale, Carney and
Kivlahan (1995) found similar profiles
among a large group of substanceabusing
veterans. The same variations
in motivation have been found in other
treatment-seeking populations, including
inpatient substance abusers (Isenhart
1994) and polydrug users in methadone
maintenance treatment (Belding et al.
1995). Recognizing these differences
was the first step to evaluating how differences
in motivation affect participation
in treatment programs and drinking
outcomes.
Assessment of motivation presents a
significant challenge. External influences
and pressures, as well as internal thoughts
and feelings, contribute to a person’s
motivation both to consider and implment
a change in behavior (Cunningham
et al. 1994). Evaluating a person’s motivation
requires assessment of the person’s
attitudes and intentions, confidence
and commitment, and decisionmaking
ability (DiClemente and Prochaska
1998). Researchers have attempted to
measure motivation in several different
ways, including querying patients about
their intentions and plans to change and
asking multiple questions reflecting the
different stages of change (DiClemente
and Prochaska 1998; McConnaughy et
al. 1989; Miller and Tonigan 1996;
Rollnick et al. 1992). Other researchers
have attempted to develop measures of
motivation for treatment (DeLeon et
al. 1997; Simpson and Joe 1993).
As an outcome of the revised perspective
on the concept of motivation,
clinicians and researchers are attempting
to intervene earlier with problem
drinkers and design programs to recruit
and motivate unmotivated patients.
Such programs are designed to address
specific tasks and obstacles that arise at
the different stages of change. To move
from the precontemplation stage, the
patient must admit to having an alcohol
problem and recognize the need to
change his or her drinking behavior. In
the contemplation stage, the patient
decides to change his or her behavior
after weighing the positive and negative
aspects of change. In the preparation
stage, the patient increases his or her
commitment to change and plans to
take action. In the action stage, the
patient develops specific behavioral
strategies to change his or her drinking
behavior. Finally, in the maintenance
stage, the patient strives to avoid relapse
by developing a lifestyle that supports
the changes in his or her drinking. For
successful recovery, patient motivation
is important throughout the entire process,
although it is an especially important
focus during the first three stages.
Motivation To Change and
Motivation for Treatment
Motivation appears to be a critical dimension
in influencing patients to seek,
comply with, and complete treatment
as well as to make successful long-term
changes in their drinking (DiClemente
and Scott 1997). Studies among substance-
abusing patients have demonstrated
the importance of motivation
for treatment in predicting treatment
participation and recovery (DeLeon et al.
1997; Simpson and Joe 1993). Motivation
for changing problem behaviors like
drinking, however, is not synonymous
with motivation for participating in
treatment. Many patients enter treatment
under pressure from other people.
Although these patients may attend
treatment, they may not be ready to
change their drinking behavior and
may not actively participate in treatment.
Most substance abuse treatment
programs and self-help initiatives are
designed to assist patients who are ready
to take action and address their problems.
Depending on the type of program and
the intensity of the examination procedures
before admission, however, people
who are not ready to change or who are
in the early stages of change are often
admitted into these programs. Therefore,
most clinicians need to know how to
handle unmotivated or reluctant patients
who enter treatment and who are, at best,
ambivalent about changing their behavior.
As pointed out by Miller and Rollnick
(1991), traditional approaches to treating
unmotivated patients with alcohol
problems often use aggressive and confrontational
strategies in response to
the patients’ denial. In one widely used
approach, a team of family members,
friends, and colleagues unite to confront
the drinker and convince him or
her that alcoholism treatment is necessary
(Johnson 1986; Liepman 1993).
Recent evidence indicates, however,
that confrontation can foster denial and
resistance in the drinker (Miller et al.
1993). As Miller (1985) emphasized in
his review of the motivation literature,
clinicians who work with unmotivated
patients must implement less confrontational
and more motivation-generating
treatment approaches.
Sources of Motivation
Research investigating sources of motivation
for change typically has compared
intrinsic sources of motivation (e.g.,
feeling a sense of accomplishment) with
extrinsic sources (e.g., financial incentives)
(Deci and Ryan 1987). Generally,
internal motivation is associated with
greater long-term change than is external
motivation (Deci and Ryan 1985).
Curry and colleagues (1991) found
that offering people financial incentives
(i.e., extrinsic motivation) to stop
smoking was less effective in both the
short and long term than an intervention
that enhanced smokers’ intrinsic
motivation by encouraging and promoting
personal responsibility.
Ryan and colleagues (1995) found
that among people who received
outpatient alcohol treatment, internal
motivation (as assessed by a treatment
motivation questionnaire) was related
positively to both treatment involvement
and retention. Among the study
subjects, the outpatients with high
levels of both internal and external
motivation had the highest treatment
retention and treatment attendance
outcomes. Irrespective of their level of
external motivation, outpatients with
low internal motivation had the worst
treatment outcomes. Finally, patients
with more severe alcohol problems
88 Alcohol Research & Health
generally had greater internal motivation
for treatment. The severity of the
patient’s alcohol problems enhances
internal motivation, presumably because
the problem severity increases distress
and thus influences decisionmaking.
Although internal motivation
appears to be more effective for longterm
success, external motivation seems
to promote short-term abstinence from
alcohol and other drugs. Interventions
that offer financial incentives to patients
who submit drug-free urine samples
have been found to be significantly
more effective than a standard treatment
without financial incentives
(Higgins and Budney 1993; Stitzer et
al. 1993) (see the article in this issue
by Higgins and Petry, pp. 122–127).
Relying solely on external pressure
and incentives to influence a patient
to modify his or her drinking behavio
การแปล กรุณารอสักครู่..