2.2. Experimental design
Three water temperature groups (23, 26 and 29 °C) were established and each had triplicates. The experiment was conducted in January and February, 2009, and terminated when more than two-thirds of larvae in a group completed their metamorphosis (defined as the completion of larval body pigmentation) to juvenile phase. Therefore, the experimental period varied in different temperature groups.
One thousand and eight hundred, newly-hatched, larvae of A. clarkii were randomly assigned into nine 100-L buckets with 200 larvae each bucket and water temperature in the buckets was controlled at 26 ± 0.5 °C. Water temperature of three buckets were subsequently reduced to 23 ± 0.5 °C and another three increased to 29 ± 0.5 °C within 24 h.
2.3. Experimental larva maintenance
Gentle aeration was supplied in the experimental buckets and increased with the growth of larvae. Daily water exchange rate was from 20% to 100%, increased with the growth of larvae. Freshwater was used to reduce salinity of seawater from 33–35‰ to 20–25‰, which known to be optimal range for larviculture of A. clarkii [11]. Light intensity was controlled at 1000–2000 Lux.
Larvae were first fed on small-type rotifer (Branchiomus species) after enriched by fish oil and green algae Chlorella species. Rotifer density was maintained at 5–10 individuals/mL in the experimental buckets. Rotifer was replaced gradually by artemia nauplii after larvae reached 6 mm total length (TL); post-larvae were fed on artemia nauplii four times each day till the end of the experiment (Section 2.4.3 for details).
2.4. Data collection
2.4.1. Larval length and weight
Twenty newly-hatched larvae of A. clarkii were sampled randomly and measured for TL (in mm) and body weight (BW in mg) at the beginning of the experiment. At Day-6 and Day-11 of the experiment, 20 larvae were sampled randomly from each bucket and measured for TL and BW. Ten post-larvae (defined as the appearance of first dorsal fin spine, scale and the first transverse pigment band) [11] from each bucket were sampled randomly and measured for TL and BW. Ten young juveniles after the completion of metamorphosis were sampled randomly from each bucket and measured for TL and BW at the end of the experiment.
2.4.2. Larval mortality and pelagic larval duration (PLD)
Numbers of dead larvae were noted daily and removed from each bucket. Days took from newly-hatched larvae to young juveniles right after the completion of metamorphosis were counted and defined as the pelagic larval duration (PLD). In this study, the PLD was also the experimental period.
2.4.3. Larval feeding
Post-larvae were fed on artemia nauplii at 8:00, 11:00, 14:00 and 17:00 each day. Each feeding lasted 30 min. The numbers of artemia nauplii that larvae fed were calculated after each feeding. To do so, the total number of artemia nauplii fed and the number of nauplii remained after 30 min were calculated in each bucket. The number of artemia nauplii per gram was also measured for each feeding. To do so, the artemia nauplii for each feeding were sampled for one gram and the number of nauplii was counted.
2.5. Calculation and data analysis
Survival rate (SR) was calculated from SR (%) = Nt/(N0−Ns) × 100, where Nt is the number of young juveniles at the end of the experiment, N0 is the number of newly-hatched larvae at the beginning of the experiment and Ns is the number of larvae sampled for measurement during the experiment.
Developmental rate (Rd) [15] was calculated from Rd = 1/D, where D is the days of pelagic larval duration.
Temperature effect (Q10) was calculated from Q10 = [R2/R1]10/(T2−T1), where T1 and T2 are the water temperatures in different experimental groups, and R1 and R2 are the daily growth rates or the developmental rates in different experimental groups, respectively.
Daily growth rate (GR) was calculated from GR (mm/d) = (TLt−TL0)/t, where TLt and TL0 are the total length at the end and beginning of the experiment, and t is the days for the experiment (i.e. D in this study).
Specific growth rate (SGR), feed ration (FR) and feed conversion efficiency (FCE) was calculated by the following equations:
SGR(%/d)=100×(lnWt-lnW0)/t,
Turn MathJax on
FR(%/d)=100×F/[(W0+Wt)/2]/t,
Turn MathJax on
FCE(%)=100×(Wt-W0)/F,
Turn MathJax on
where Wt and W0 are the body weight at the end and beginning of the experiment, t is the days for the experiment (i.e. D in this study), and F is the total weight of artemia nauplii intake.
Statistical analyses were carried out using Excel and SPSS 13.0 softwares. One-way ANOVA was used to test the significant difference at level 0.05 among water temperature groups.
3. Results
3.1. Effects of water temperature on larval survival
Water temperature influenced larval survival of A. clarkii significantly and larvae reared at high water temperature of 29 °C had highest survival rate at the end of the experiment (P < 0.05) ( Fig. 1). Survival rates prior to post-larval phase had no significantly difference and were between 75.7 and 83.7% at all three temperature groups (P > 0.05).
Full-size image (15 K)
Fig. 1.
Survival rate (%) (mean ± SE, n = 3) of A. clarkii at post-larval and young juvenile phases reared at water temperatures of 23, 26 and 29 °C. Notes. The different small letters above the bars represented the significantly difference on survival rate (P < 0.05).
Figure options
3.2. Effects of water temperature on larval development
With the increase of water temperature from 23 °C to 29 °C, the days for post-larval development and pelagic larval duration (PLD) reduced and the developmental rate of larvae increased significantly (P < 0.05) ( Table 1). Temperature effect (Q10) in larval developmental rate showed a decline trend at higher water temperature ( Table 2).
Table 1.
Days for post-larval development and pelagic larval duration and developmental rate (mean ± SE, n = 3) of larvae of A. clarkii reared at water temperatures of 23 °C, 26 °C and 29 °C.
Temperature (°C) Post-larval development (days) Pelagic larval duration (days) Developmental rate
23 13.0 ± 0.6a 24.7 ± 0.9a 0.041 ± 0.001a
26 8.7 ± 0.3b 16.0 ± 0.6b 0.063 ± 0.002b
29 6.0 ± 0.6c 11.3 ± 0.9c 0.089 ± 0.007c
Notes. Means in the same column with the different letters on the superscripts represented the significant difference (P < 0.05).
Table options
Table 2.
Temperature effect (Q10) of larvae of A. clarkii in developmental and grow rates reared at water temperatures of 23, 26 and 29 °C.
Temperature range (°C) Q10 in developmental rate Q10 in growth rate
23–26 4.23 3.47
23–29 3.71 3.09
26–29 3.25 2.75
Table options
Water temperature also influenced the body size of larval development significantly, and TL and BW for post-larval development and metamorphosis decreased with the increase of water temperature from 23 °C to 29 °C (P < 0.05) ( Fig. 2).
Full-size image (26 K)
Fig. 2.
Total length (mm) (A) and body weight (mg) (B) (mean ± SE, n = 3) of larvae of A. clarkii at post-larval and metamorphosis phases (see Table 1 for the days needed) reared at water temperatures of 23, 26 and 29 °C. Notes. The different small letter above the bars represented the significant difference on TL and BW (P < 0.05).
Figure options
3.3. Effects of water temperature on larval growth
Newly-hatched larvae of A. clarkii at the beginning of the experiment were (4.8 ± 0.3) mm TL and (0.95 ± 0.11) mg BW. Water temperature influenced larval growth significantly and TL and BW of larvae at both Day-6 and Day-11 of the experiment increased with the increase of water temperature from 23 °C to 29 °C (P < 0.05) ( Fig. 3). Daily growth rate (mm/d) and specific growth rate (SGR) of larvae increased significantly with the increase of water temperature (P < 0.05) ( Table 3). Q10 in larval developmental and growth rate showed a decline trend at higher water temperature ( Table 2).
Full-size image (26 K)
Fig. 3.
Total length (mm) (A) and body weight (mg) (B) (mean ± SE, n = 3) of larvae of A. clarkii reared at water temperatures of 23, 26 and 29 °C at Day-6 and Day-11 of the experiment. Notes. The different small letter above the bars represented the significant difference on TL and BW (P < 0.05).
Figure options
Table 3.
Daily growth rate (mm/d) and specific growth rate of larvae of A. clarkii (mean ± SE, n = 3) reared at water temperatures of 23, 26 and 29 °C at the end of the experiment (the days see the pelagic larval duration in Table 1).
Temperature (°C) Daily growth rate (mm/d) Specific growth rate (%/d)
23 0.29 ± 0.01a 6.38 ± 0.43a
26 0.41 ± 0.01b 10.81 ± 0.46b
29 0.56 ± 0.05c 14.72 ± 0.71c
Notes. Means in the same column with the different letters on the superscripts represented the significant difference (P < 0.05).
Table options
3.4. Effects of water temperature on post-larval feeding
Water temperature influenced post-larval feeding. Feed ration (FR) of post-larvae increased significantly with the increase of water temperature from 23 to 29 °C (P < 0.01) ( Table 4). Feed conversion efficiency (FCE) also increased with the increase of water temperature from 23 to 29 °C, and the significantly difference of FCE was recorded between 23 and 29 °C (P < 0.05), but not between 23 and 26 °C, and between 26 and 29 °C (P > 0.05) ( Table 4). Taking the temperature for the control factors, SGR, FR and FCE for variables, the partial correlation analyses showed that FR had significantly positive correlation with SGR (Pearson correlation coefficient = 0.742, P < 0.05), while FCE had no significantly positive correlation with SGR (Pearson correlation coefficient = 0.611, P > 0.05).
Table 4.
Feed ration and feed conversion efficiency (mean ± SE, n = 3) of larvae of A. clarkii reared at water temperatures of 23, 26 and 29 °C.
Temperature (°C) Feeding ration (%/d) Feed conversion efficiency (%)
23 39.17 ± 1.38a 15.49 ± 0.49a
26 60.20 ± 3.62b 17.12 ± 0.48ab
29 74.29 ± 2.71c 18.98 ± 1.30b
Notes. Means in the same column with the different
2.2. ทดลองออกแบบได้ก่อตั้งกลุ่มอุณหภูมิน้ำสาม (23, 26 และ 29 ° C) และแต่ละได้ triplicates ทดลองดำเนินการในเดือนมกราคมและกุมภาพันธ์ 2552 และสิ้นสุดเมื่อการเปลี่ยนแปลง (กำหนดเป็นความสมบูรณ์ของผิวคล้ำร่างกาย larval) เสร็จสมบูรณ์มากกว่าสองในสามของตัวอ่อนในกลุ่มเยาวชนระยะ ดังนั้น ระยะเวลาทดลองแตกต่างกันในกลุ่มอุณหภูมิแตกต่างกันหนึ่งหมื่น และแปดร้อย ใหม่เป็ด ตัวอ่อนของอ.แดงถูกสุ่มกำหนดเป็นถัง 100 L 9 มี 200 ตัวอ่อนแต่ละกลุ่ม และอุณหภูมิน้ำในถังจะถูกควบคุมที่ 26 ± 0.5 องศาเซลเซียส อุณหภูมิน้ำถังสามได้ลดลงในเวลาต่อมา 23 ± 0.5 ° C และอีกสามเพิ่มขึ้น 29 ± 0.5 ° C ภายใน 24 ชม2.3 การหนอนทดลองบำรุงรักษาAeration อ่อนโยนถูกจัดอยู่ในกลุ่มทดลอง และเพิ่ม ด้วยการเติบโตของตัวอ่อน อัตราแลกเปลี่ยนน้ำทุกวันได้จาก 20% ถึง 100% เพิ่มขึ้นกับการเจริญเติบโตของตัวอ่อน ปลาใช้ลดเค็มของน้ำทะเลจาก 33 – 35‰ 20 – 25‰ ที่รู้จักกันจะเป็นช่วงที่ดีที่สุดสำหรับ larviculture ของอ.แดง [11] ความเข้มแสงถูกควบคุมที่ 1000-2000 ลักซ์ตัวอ่อนได้ก่อนเลี้ยงบนโรติเฟอร์ขนาดเล็กชนิด (สปีชีส์ Branchiomus) หลังจากอุดมไป ด้วยน้ำมันปลาและสาหร่ายสีเขียว Chlorella พันธุ์ ความหนาแน่นของโรติเฟอร์ถูกรักษาใน 5-10 คน/mL ในกลุ่มทดลอง โรติเฟอร์ถูกแทนทีละน้อย โดย artemia nauplii หลังจากตัวอ่อนถึง 6 มม.ยาวรวม (TL); หลังตัวอ่อนถูกเลี้ยงใน artemia nauplii 4 ครั้งแต่ละวันจนถึงสิ้นสุดการทดลอง (ส่วน 2.4.3 รายละเอียด)2.4 รวบรวมข้อมูล2.4.1. larval ความยาวและน้ำหนัก20 ใหม่ฟักตัวอ่อนของอ.แดงมีตัวอย่างสุ่ม และวัด TL (ในมิลลิเมตร) และน้ำหนัก (BW ใน mg) เมื่อเริ่มต้นทดลอง ใน 6 วันและวันที่ 11 ของทดลอง ตัวอ่อน 20 มีตัวอย่างสุ่มจากแต่ละกลุ่ม และวัด TL และ BW สิบตัวอ่อนหลัง (กำหนดเป็นลักษณะของกระดูกสันหลังแรก dorsal fin มาตราส่วน และวงแรกและรงควัตถุ transverse) [11] จากแต่ละกลุ่มมี TL และ BW ตัวอย่างโดยการสุ่มวัดสำหรับการ Juveniles หนุ่มสิบหลังเสร็จสิ้นการเปลี่ยนสัณฐานได้ตัวอย่างแบบสุ่มจากแต่ละกลุ่ม และวัด TL และ BW ที่สิ้นสุดการทดลอง2.4.2. larval ตายและระยะ larval เกี่ยวกับ (PLD)จำนวนตัวอ่อนตายได้สังเกตทุกวัน และเอาออกจากแต่ละกลุ่ม วันเอาจากตัวอ่อนที่ฟักใหม่ทางขวา juveniles หนุ่มหลังจากเสร็จสิ้นการเปลี่ยนแปลงนับ และกำหนดเป็นระยะ larval เกี่ยวกับ (PLD) ในการศึกษานี้ PLD มีระยะเวลาทดลอง2.4.3 การ larval อาหารหลังตัวอ่อนถูกเลี้ยงใน artemia nauplii ที่ 8:00, 11:00, 14:00 และ 17:00 น.แต่ละวัน อาหารแต่ละกินเวลา 30 นาที มีคำนวณจำนวน nauplii artemia ที่เลี้ยงตัวอ่อนหลังจากให้อาหารแต่ละ ดัง artemia nauplii เลี้ยงจำนวนและจำนวน nauplii ยังคงหลังจากที่มีคำนวณ 30 นาทีในแต่ละกลุ่ม จำนวน nauplii artemia ต่อกรัมเป็นวัดสำหรับอาหารแต่ละ ดัง nauplii artemia สำหรับอาหารแต่ละได้ความในหนึ่งกรัม และมีนับจำนวน nauplii2.5 การคำนวณและข้อมูลวิเคราะห์อัตราการอยู่รอด (SR) ถูกคำนวณจาก SR (%) = Nt/(N0−Ns) × 100 ที่ Nt จำนวน juveniles หนุ่มจบทดลอง N0 คือ จำนวนตัวอ่อนที่ฟักใหม่เมื่อเริ่มต้นทดลอง และ Ns คือ จำนวนตัวอ่อนตัวอย่างสำหรับการประเมินระหว่างการทดลองถนนคำนวณอัตราพัฒนา (Rd) [15] = 1/D, D อยู่วันระยะ larval เกี่ยวกับผลของอุณหภูมิ (Q10) ถูกคำนวณจาก Q10 = [R2/R1]10/(T2−T1) ที่ T1 และ T2 มีอุณหภูมิน้ำในกลุ่มทดลองแตกต่างกัน และ R1 และ R2 มีอัตราเติบโตทุกวันหรือราคาถูกพัฒนาในกลุ่มทดลองแตกต่างกัน ตามลำดับคำนวณอัตราการเติบโตทุกวัน (GR) GR (mm/d) = (TLt−TL0) t, TLt และ TL0 ความยาวรวมที่สิ้นสุดและจุดเริ่มต้นของการทดลอง และ t เป็น วันทดลอง (เช่น D ในการศึกษานี้)Specific growth rate (SGR), feed ration (FR) and feed conversion efficiency (FCE) was calculated by the following equations:SGR(%/d)=100×(lnWt-lnW0)/t,Turn MathJax onFR(%/d)=100×F/[(W0+Wt)/2]/t,Turn MathJax onFCE(%)=100×(Wt-W0)/F,Turn MathJax onwhere Wt and W0 are the body weight at the end and beginning of the experiment, t is the days for the experiment (i.e. D in this study), and F is the total weight of artemia nauplii intake.Statistical analyses were carried out using Excel and SPSS 13.0 softwares. One-way ANOVA was used to test the significant difference at level 0.05 among water temperature groups.3. Results3.1. Effects of water temperature on larval survivalWater temperature influenced larval survival of A. clarkii significantly and larvae reared at high water temperature of 29 °C had highest survival rate at the end of the experiment (P < 0.05) ( Fig. 1). Survival rates prior to post-larval phase had no significantly difference and were between 75.7 and 83.7% at all three temperature groups (P > 0.05).Full-size image (15 K)Fig. 1. Survival rate (%) (mean ± SE, n = 3) of A. clarkii at post-larval and young juvenile phases reared at water temperatures of 23, 26 and 29 °C. Notes. The different small letters above the bars represented the significantly difference on survival rate (P < 0.05).Figure options3.2. Effects of water temperature on larval developmentWith the increase of water temperature from 23 °C to 29 °C, the days for post-larval development and pelagic larval duration (PLD) reduced and the developmental rate of larvae increased significantly (P < 0.05) ( Table 1). Temperature effect (Q10) in larval developmental rate showed a decline trend at higher water temperature ( Table 2).Table 1.Days for post-larval development and pelagic larval duration and developmental rate (mean ± SE, n = 3) of larvae of A. clarkii reared at water temperatures of 23 °C, 26 °C and 29 °C.Temperature (°C) Post-larval development (days) Pelagic larval duration (days) Developmental rate23 13.0 ± 0.6a 24.7 ± 0.9a 0.041 ± 0.001a26 8.7 ± 0.3b 16.0 ± 0.6b 0.063 ± 0.002b29 6.0 ± 0.6c 11.3 ± 0.9c 0.089 ± 0.007cNotes. Means in the same column with the different letters on the superscripts represented the significant difference (P < 0.05).Table optionsTable 2.Temperature effect (Q10) of larvae of A. clarkii in developmental and grow rates reared at water temperatures of 23, 26 and 29 °C.Temperature range (°C) Q10 in developmental rate Q10 in growth rate23–26 4.23 3.4723–29 3.71 3.0926–29 3.25 2.75Table optionsWater temperature also influenced the body size of larval development significantly, and TL and BW for post-larval development and metamorphosis decreased with the increase of water temperature from 23 °C to 29 °C (P < 0.05) ( Fig. 2).Full-size image (26 K)Fig. 2. Total length (mm) (A) and body weight (mg) (B) (mean ± SE, n = 3) of larvae of A. clarkii at post-larval and metamorphosis phases (see Table 1 for the days needed) reared at water temperatures of 23, 26 and 29 °C. Notes. The different small letter above the bars represented the significant difference on TL and BW (P < 0.05).Figure options3.3. Effects of water temperature on larval growthNewly-hatched larvae of A. clarkii at the beginning of the experiment were (4.8 ± 0.3) mm TL and (0.95 ± 0.11) mg BW. Water temperature influenced larval growth significantly and TL and BW of larvae at both Day-6 and Day-11 of the experiment increased with the increase of water temperature from 23 °C to 29 °C (P < 0.05) ( Fig. 3). Daily growth rate (mm/d) and specific growth rate (SGR) of larvae increased significantly with the increase of water temperature (P < 0.05) ( Table 3). Q10 in larval developmental and growth rate showed a decline trend at higher water temperature ( Table 2).Full-size image (26 K)Fig. 3. Total length (mm) (A) and body weight (mg) (B) (mean ± SE, n = 3) of larvae of A. clarkii reared at water temperatures of 23, 26 and 29 °C at Day-6 and Day-11 of the experiment. Notes. The different small letter above the bars represented the significant difference on TL and BW (P < 0.05).Figure optionsTable 3.Daily growth rate (mm/d) and specific growth rate of larvae of A. clarkii (mean ± SE, n = 3) reared at water temperatures of 23, 26 and 29 °C at the end of the experiment (the days see the pelagic larval duration in Table 1).Temperature (°C) Daily growth rate (mm/d) Specific growth rate (%/d)23 0.29 ± 0.01a 6.38 ± 0.43a26 0.41 ± 0.01b 10.81 ± 0.46b29 0.56 ± 0.05c 14.72 ± 0.71cNotes. Means in the same column with the different letters on the superscripts represented the significant difference (P < 0.05).Table options3.4. Effects of water temperature on post-larval feedingWater temperature influenced post-larval feeding. Feed ration (FR) of post-larvae increased significantly with the increase of water temperature from 23 to 29 °C (P < 0.01) ( Table 4). Feed conversion efficiency (FCE) also increased with the increase of water temperature from 23 to 29 °C, and the significantly difference of FCE was recorded between 23 and 29 °C (P < 0.05), but not between 23 and 26 °C, and between 26 and 29 °C (P > 0.05) ( Table 4). Taking the temperature for the control factors, SGR, FR and FCE for variables, the partial correlation analyses showed that FR had significantly positive correlation with SGR (Pearson correlation coefficient = 0.742, P < 0.05), while FCE had no significantly positive correlation with SGR (Pearson correlation coefficient = 0.611, P > 0.05).Table 4.Feed ration and feed conversion efficiency (mean ± SE, n = 3) of larvae of A. clarkii reared at water temperatures of 23, 26 and 29 °C.Temperature (°C) Feeding ration (%/d) Feed conversion efficiency (%)23 39.17 ± 1.38a 15.49 ± 0.49a26 60.20 ± 3.62b 17.12 ± 0.48ab29 74.29 ± 2.71c 18.98 ± 1.30bNotes. Means in the same column with the different
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2.2. Experimental design
Three water temperature groups (23, 26 and 29 °C) were established and each had triplicates. The experiment was conducted in January and February, 2009, and terminated when more than two-thirds of larvae in a group completed their metamorphosis (defined as the completion of larval body pigmentation) to juvenile phase. Therefore, the experimental period varied in different temperature groups.
One thousand and eight hundred, newly-hatched, larvae of A. clarkii were randomly assigned into nine 100-L buckets with 200 larvae each bucket and water temperature in the buckets was controlled at 26 ± 0.5 °C. Water temperature of three buckets were subsequently reduced to 23 ± 0.5 °C and another three increased to 29 ± 0.5 °C within 24 h.
2.3. Experimental larva maintenance
Gentle aeration was supplied in the experimental buckets and increased with the growth of larvae. Daily water exchange rate was from 20% to 100%, increased with the growth of larvae. Freshwater was used to reduce salinity of seawater from 33–35‰ to 20–25‰, which known to be optimal range for larviculture of A. clarkii [11]. Light intensity was controlled at 1000–2000 Lux.
Larvae were first fed on small-type rotifer (Branchiomus species) after enriched by fish oil and green algae Chlorella species. Rotifer density was maintained at 5–10 individuals/mL in the experimental buckets. Rotifer was replaced gradually by artemia nauplii after larvae reached 6 mm total length (TL); post-larvae were fed on artemia nauplii four times each day till the end of the experiment (Section 2.4.3 for details).
2.4. Data collection
2.4.1. Larval length and weight
Twenty newly-hatched larvae of A. clarkii were sampled randomly and measured for TL (in mm) and body weight (BW in mg) at the beginning of the experiment. At Day-6 and Day-11 of the experiment, 20 larvae were sampled randomly from each bucket and measured for TL and BW. Ten post-larvae (defined as the appearance of first dorsal fin spine, scale and the first transverse pigment band) [11] from each bucket were sampled randomly and measured for TL and BW. Ten young juveniles after the completion of metamorphosis were sampled randomly from each bucket and measured for TL and BW at the end of the experiment.
2.4.2. Larval mortality and pelagic larval duration (PLD)
Numbers of dead larvae were noted daily and removed from each bucket. Days took from newly-hatched larvae to young juveniles right after the completion of metamorphosis were counted and defined as the pelagic larval duration (PLD). In this study, the PLD was also the experimental period.
2.4.3. Larval feeding
Post-larvae were fed on artemia nauplii at 8:00, 11:00, 14:00 and 17:00 each day. Each feeding lasted 30 min. The numbers of artemia nauplii that larvae fed were calculated after each feeding. To do so, the total number of artemia nauplii fed and the number of nauplii remained after 30 min were calculated in each bucket. The number of artemia nauplii per gram was also measured for each feeding. To do so, the artemia nauplii for each feeding were sampled for one gram and the number of nauplii was counted.
2.5. Calculation and data analysis
Survival rate (SR) was calculated from SR (%) = Nt/(N0−Ns) × 100, where Nt is the number of young juveniles at the end of the experiment, N0 is the number of newly-hatched larvae at the beginning of the experiment and Ns is the number of larvae sampled for measurement during the experiment.
Developmental rate (Rd) [15] was calculated from Rd = 1/D, where D is the days of pelagic larval duration.
Temperature effect (Q10) was calculated from Q10 = [R2/R1]10/(T2−T1), where T1 and T2 are the water temperatures in different experimental groups, and R1 and R2 are the daily growth rates or the developmental rates in different experimental groups, respectively.
Daily growth rate (GR) was calculated from GR (mm/d) = (TLt−TL0)/t, where TLt and TL0 are the total length at the end and beginning of the experiment, and t is the days for the experiment (i.e. D in this study).
Specific growth rate (SGR), feed ration (FR) and feed conversion efficiency (FCE) was calculated by the following equations:
SGR(%/d)=100×(lnWt-lnW0)/t,
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FR(%/d)=100×F/[(W0+Wt)/2]/t,
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FCE(%)=100×(Wt-W0)/F,
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where Wt and W0 are the body weight at the end and beginning of the experiment, t is the days for the experiment (i.e. D in this study), and F is the total weight of artemia nauplii intake.
Statistical analyses were carried out using Excel and SPSS 13.0 softwares. One-way ANOVA was used to test the significant difference at level 0.05 among water temperature groups.
3. Results
3.1. Effects of water temperature on larval survival
Water temperature influenced larval survival of A. clarkii significantly and larvae reared at high water temperature of 29 °C had highest survival rate at the end of the experiment (P < 0.05) ( Fig. 1). Survival rates prior to post-larval phase had no significantly difference and were between 75.7 and 83.7% at all three temperature groups (P > 0.05).
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Fig. 1.
Survival rate (%) (mean ± SE, n = 3) of A. clarkii at post-larval and young juvenile phases reared at water temperatures of 23, 26 and 29 °C. Notes. The different small letters above the bars represented the significantly difference on survival rate (P < 0.05).
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3.2. Effects of water temperature on larval development
With the increase of water temperature from 23 °C to 29 °C, the days for post-larval development and pelagic larval duration (PLD) reduced and the developmental rate of larvae increased significantly (P < 0.05) ( Table 1). Temperature effect (Q10) in larval developmental rate showed a decline trend at higher water temperature ( Table 2).
Table 1.
Days for post-larval development and pelagic larval duration and developmental rate (mean ± SE, n = 3) of larvae of A. clarkii reared at water temperatures of 23 °C, 26 °C and 29 °C.
Temperature (°C) Post-larval development (days) Pelagic larval duration (days) Developmental rate
23 13.0 ± 0.6a 24.7 ± 0.9a 0.041 ± 0.001a
26 8.7 ± 0.3b 16.0 ± 0.6b 0.063 ± 0.002b
29 6.0 ± 0.6c 11.3 ± 0.9c 0.089 ± 0.007c
Notes. Means in the same column with the different letters on the superscripts represented the significant difference (P < 0.05).
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Table 2.
Temperature effect (Q10) of larvae of A. clarkii in developmental and grow rates reared at water temperatures of 23, 26 and 29 °C.
Temperature range (°C) Q10 in developmental rate Q10 in growth rate
23–26 4.23 3.47
23–29 3.71 3.09
26–29 3.25 2.75
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Water temperature also influenced the body size of larval development significantly, and TL and BW for post-larval development and metamorphosis decreased with the increase of water temperature from 23 °C to 29 °C (P < 0.05) ( Fig. 2).
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Fig. 2.
Total length (mm) (A) and body weight (mg) (B) (mean ± SE, n = 3) of larvae of A. clarkii at post-larval and metamorphosis phases (see Table 1 for the days needed) reared at water temperatures of 23, 26 and 29 °C. Notes. The different small letter above the bars represented the significant difference on TL and BW (P < 0.05).
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3.3. Effects of water temperature on larval growth
Newly-hatched larvae of A. clarkii at the beginning of the experiment were (4.8 ± 0.3) mm TL and (0.95 ± 0.11) mg BW. Water temperature influenced larval growth significantly and TL and BW of larvae at both Day-6 and Day-11 of the experiment increased with the increase of water temperature from 23 °C to 29 °C (P < 0.05) ( Fig. 3). Daily growth rate (mm/d) and specific growth rate (SGR) of larvae increased significantly with the increase of water temperature (P < 0.05) ( Table 3). Q10 in larval developmental and growth rate showed a decline trend at higher water temperature ( Table 2).
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Fig. 3.
Total length (mm) (A) and body weight (mg) (B) (mean ± SE, n = 3) of larvae of A. clarkii reared at water temperatures of 23, 26 and 29 °C at Day-6 and Day-11 of the experiment. Notes. The different small letter above the bars represented the significant difference on TL and BW (P < 0.05).
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Table 3.
Daily growth rate (mm/d) and specific growth rate of larvae of A. clarkii (mean ± SE, n = 3) reared at water temperatures of 23, 26 and 29 °C at the end of the experiment (the days see the pelagic larval duration in Table 1).
Temperature (°C) Daily growth rate (mm/d) Specific growth rate (%/d)
23 0.29 ± 0.01a 6.38 ± 0.43a
26 0.41 ± 0.01b 10.81 ± 0.46b
29 0.56 ± 0.05c 14.72 ± 0.71c
Notes. Means in the same column with the different letters on the superscripts represented the significant difference (P < 0.05).
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3.4. Effects of water temperature on post-larval feeding
Water temperature influenced post-larval feeding. Feed ration (FR) of post-larvae increased significantly with the increase of water temperature from 23 to 29 °C (P < 0.01) ( Table 4). Feed conversion efficiency (FCE) also increased with the increase of water temperature from 23 to 29 °C, and the significantly difference of FCE was recorded between 23 and 29 °C (P < 0.05), but not between 23 and 26 °C, and between 26 and 29 °C (P > 0.05) ( Table 4). Taking the temperature for the control factors, SGR, FR and FCE for variables, the partial correlation analyses showed that FR had significantly positive correlation with SGR (Pearson correlation coefficient = 0.742, P < 0.05), while FCE had no significantly positive correlation with SGR (Pearson correlation coefficient = 0.611, P > 0.05).
Table 4.
Feed ration and feed conversion efficiency (mean ± SE, n = 3) of larvae of A. clarkii reared at water temperatures of 23, 26 and 29 °C.
Temperature (°C) Feeding ration (%/d) Feed conversion efficiency (%)
23 39.17 ± 1.38a 15.49 ± 0.49a
26 60.20 ± 3.62b 17.12 ± 0.48ab
29 74.29 ± 2.71c 18.98 ± 1.30b
Notes. Means in the same column with the different
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